The Effect Of Aerobic Exercise On Aerobic Capacity

INTRODUCTION The body constantly needs energy to work. This energy, at the cellular level, supplied in the form of chemical potential energy stored in ATP needs to be regeneration in order to fuel more cellular activity and this can be done aerobically or anaerobically(Astrand 1956). Energy to sustain high intensity workouts cannot eventually be fully supported by anaerobic pathways, resulting in an increased reliance on aerobic metabolism (Bogdanis et al. 1996). The level of fitness to carry out anaerobic exercises may be influenced by aerobic capacity (Kaikkonen et al.2000, Tomlin and Wegner 2011). By discovering the relationship between anaerobic fitness and aerobic fitness. It should be possible for athletes to think about taking an advantage by distributing their physical energy during a match properly or, for any individuals to understand or make their personal fitness program. The aim of this study is to compare the maximum number of push-ups achieved by tested individuals against their change in pulse rate measure before and after a moderate step-up exercise; and determine how the ability of anaerobic fitness influences aerobic exercise. It was predicted that being anaerobically fit do not assist in aerobic exercise. METHOD Refer to the School of Biological Sciences (2015). See Appendix 1 for Null and Alternate hypotheses RESULTS There is a total of 137 tested individuals involved. There are 49 observations who did less than 25 push-ups and a number of 88Show MoreRelatedThe Relationship Between Aerobic Capacity And The Level Of Fitness Of Anaerobic Exercise1120 Words   |  5 PagesTHE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AEROBIC CAPACITY AND THE LEVEL OF FITNESS OF ANAEROBIC EXERCISE IN YOUNG ADULTS BY COMPARING THE MEAN CHANGE IN PULSE RATE AND THE NUMBER OF PUSH-UPS Introduction Cells undergo respiration which produces adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for energy to support daily activities of human. There are two forms of respiration, namely aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic respiration uses oxygen as a reagent in order to produce a higher amount of ATP, yet requiring a longer time. On the contraryRead MoreThe Relationship Between Anaerobic Exercise And Aerobic Capacity985 Words   |  4 PagesThe relationship between anaerobic exercise and aerobic capacity Introduction Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an important organic molecule in all living organisms, it is a biologist fuel for all living organisms.(Vanputte et al. 2014) When the energy stored in ATP is used, ATP will be broken down to adenosine triphosphate and inorganic phosphorous (Astrand 1956). Cell Respiration is the way that the human body produces more ATP, and there are four parts in total which is glycolysis, Link ReactionRead MoreEssay On Aerobic Training1317 Words   |  6 PagesImpact of Yogic Practices and Aerobic Training on Low Density Lipoproteins among Middle Aged Women Abstract: Health is considered as the result of good health and adequate follow-up in this direction. Physical well-being has been strongly emphasized among all the dimensions of well-being and human health. The aim of the study is to understand the impact of yogic practices group and aerobic training on low density lipoprotein among middle-aged women. To achieve this goal the study, 45 middle-agedRead MoreExercise And Exercise : Aerobic Exercise1397 Words   |  6 PagesQuestion 1: What Is Aerobic Exercise? Aerobic exercise (also known as cardiovascular exercise) is physical exercise of low to high intensity that depends mainly on the aerobic energy-generating procedure. The word Aerobic literally means pertaining to, including, or requiring free oxygen, and refers to the use of oxygen to properly meet energy demands during exercise through aerobic metabolism.Generally, light-to-moderate intensity exercises that are completely supported by aerobic metabolism canRead MoreThe Effects Of Aerobic Exercise On Short Term Memory Essay917 Words   |  4 PagesThe effects of aerobic exercise on short-term memory Blakemore (1988) defines memory as the ability to retain information from past experiences. According to a study done by Brown-Peterson, the average person’s short-term memory is 60% accurate (Gross et al., 2015). According to a research experiment, conducted by Stroth et al. (2011), a possible way of increasing memory is through aerobic exercise. Stroth et al. (2011), concluded that aerobic exercise improves the visual memory by 25%. AccordingRead MoreThe Lifestyle change Program1679 Words   |  7 Pagesbelow average in some physical aspects when compared to normative values of her age category. Areas that will be specifically targeted in the program include aerobic fitness and strength, dietary intake requirements and lifestyle changes. The client must be educated on the concept and the benefits associated with increasing aerobic capacity and also increasing muscle strength, not only of the upper body but all major muscle groups. In addition to educating the client on the benefits of increasingRead MoreExercise And Severe Major Depression876 Words   |  4 Pages Fleck, M. P. (2015). Exercise and severe major depression: Effect on symptom severity and quality of life at discharge in an inpatient cohort. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 61(2), 25-32. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.11.005 The objective of the article was to determine if there was an increase benefit to the addition of aerobic exercise to standard care for the treatment of major depressive disorder. The authors examined the effects of aerobic exercise and standard care versusRead MoreExercise Increases The Intelligence Of Humans1245 Words   |  5 PagesNow a days everywhere you go people are idolizing human fitness and exercise. The majority of this generation eats right, lifts right and obsesses over their image. The average person is going to strive for a great body, and great intelligence. But who ever said you can have both a great- healthy body and intelligence? I do, the human brain is the most complex and unique organ in the body. Some even consider it a muscle. Similar to muscles, your brain can be trained and worked for better functionalityRead MoreEnergy Metabolism Is Important For The Maintenance Of Life1704 Words   |  7 Pageswith regards to sporting/exercise performance. The body can produce energy both aerobically and anaerobically and the regulatory mechanisms underlying these pathways of energy modulation are complex (40). Under aerobic conditions the Krebs cycle is crucial for energy production, the hydrogen’s removed during the cycle are transferred to the electron transport chain and the energy released during electron transport is utilised in the formation of ATP (1). Oxygen’s role in aerobic respiration is to actRead MoreGlycolysis is both the Anaerobic and Aerobic System759 Words   |  3 Pagesglycolysis. Uniquely, glycolysis is both anaerobic and aerobic. The end product pyruvate, from glycolysis, is anabolized to lactic acid when there is a need for energy without an adequate supply of oxygen available. This last step or reaction enables glycolysis to continue producing ATP without the need for oxygen, which is why it is called the anaerobic energy system (Fink, 2009). ATP is used in all three systems, phosphagen, anaerobic, and aerobic as the primary energy source. How ATP is processed

Skills Gaps in Americas Work Force Essay - 1318 Words

Current Event: Week 2 Current Event Article: Skill Gaps in America’s Work Force Jess Tourville Endicott College October 13, 2013 Managerial Economics Richard Weissman Summary In the well written article Stubborn Skills Gap in America’s Work Force, the author Eduardo Porter describes how fictitious the idea of workers in America really is. When asking President Obama which country develops and breads the most skilled work force he said hands down the United States. Obama’s direct words about the work force were â€Å"more productive than any on earth† and they â€Å"build better products than anybody else.† Even the less boisterous Republicans were sure American workers could surpass any competition on any†¦show more content†¦However, Americans skills are still in the same place and have not gotten stronger or shown any sign of trying to improve. The demand for better education and stronger skilled applicants is constantly growing in all advanced nations, but the supply for this demand is not coming from the United States. Regardless of the lack of supply provided by America, their highly skilled workers who do exist earn a much larger wage premium than unskilled workers in all other advanced nations. To summarize today’s economy; â€Å"the American labor market is good at attracting talented foreigners, offering them more money than they make elsewhere.† This is not the way to improve the education and skill level of workers in America but it’s a solution for companies to sustain their business process and continue to generate revenue. If they can hire 3 people from another country for the same salary as one American, it makes sense from a business standpoint to be more productive for less money. The United States was the first country to provide for universal high school education but now 1 in every 5 high-school students leave without a diploma. Across the board America is below other nations as far as education and development in the work place, not only are there minimal qual ified applicants for jobs but when they do get hiredShow MoreRelatedExamination of the Education System in Idiot Nation, by Michael Moore 1351 Words   |  5 Pagesfour to five careers in a lifetime. It will be their ability to navigate information that will matter† (Moore 141). According to Moore, American education today is by no means preparing students for the real world of work. In fact, he infers that students must acquire the acute skill of navigating through information that will guide them into the career they will eventually pursue. 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Electrophoresis Separation Of Proteins Cytochrome C Myoglobin free essay sample

Electrophoresis Separation Of Proteins Cytochrome C, Myoglobin, Hemoglobin, And Serum Albumin By Using Isoelectric Focusing System ( Ief ) Essay, Research Paper Electrophoresis Separation of Proteins Cytochrome C, Myoglobin, Hemoglobin, and Serum Albumin by Using Isoelectric Focusing System ( IEF ) Introduction Proteins are composed of aminic acids. All aminic acids are amphiprotic molecules dwelling of three types of amino acids: impersonal, acidic, and basic. Therefore, for any protein there is a characteristic pH, called the isoelectric point ( pi ) , at which the protein has no net charge and hence will non travel in the electric field. Electrophoresis takes advantage of this characteristic. Proteins are electrophoreased, and the most negatively charged protein moves closest to the cathode, and the most positively charged protein moves closest to the anode. Cytochrome C was expected to travel closest to the cathode, and serum albumen was expected to travel closest to the anode. Merely cytochrome C was expected to travel to the cathode. The other three proteins were expected to travel toward anode. The intent of cataphoresis was to see how a difference in pi makes a difference in the cataphoretic mobility of protein. Materials and Methods Four proteins were electrophoreased by utilizing the Tris-Glysin buffer of pH 8.6 and a horizontal agarose gel 1.1 % in isoelectric focussing ( IEF ) at a electromotive force of 175 V and at a current of 79 ma. The agarose gel was made by blending 0.18g of agarose in 1.5ml of Tris-Glysin buffer with a pH of 8.6. That is 100 % * 0.18 / ( 0.18 + 15 ) = 1.1 % of agarose gel. 15? ? cubic decimeter of each protein sample was loaded into each sample application good on the agarose gel without blending with glycerol solution. After the agarose gels were placed on the phase of the cataphoresis chamber, Tris-Glysin buffer of pH 8.6 was filled in the cataphoresis chamber carefully until the agarose gels were somewhat covered with the buffer. Four proteins had electrophoreased for approximately 50 proceedingss. The agarose gels were removed from the cataphoresis chamber and stained overnight with the Coomassie Blue to visualise proteins in the agarose gel. Consequences Well 1 Cytochrome C pI 10.2 Well 2 Myoglobin pi 7.2 Well 3 Hemoglobin pi 6.8 Well4 Serum albumin pI 4.8 Sample Volume 15? ? cubic decimeter PH of buffer 8.6 Voltage 175 V Current 79 ma Runing Time 0.8 hour Table 1 shows the conditions of this IEF cataphoresis. 15? ? cubic decimeter of each cytochrome C, myoglobin, haemoglobin, and serum albumen were loaded into the well as indicated in Table 1. Well 1 is the bottom well in Figure 1. A electromotive force of 175 V and a current 79 ma was applied in the buffer of pH 8.6 for 50 proceedingss, and bubbles were observed on the electrode during the cataphoresis. Figure 1 shows that cytochrome ( *1 in Figure 1 ) moved closest to the cathode, and serum albumen ( *4 ) moved closest to the anode. Myoglobin ( *2 ) and haemoglobin ( *3 ) moved toward the anode, but hemoglobin moved further from the well than myoglobin. Discussion The consequences support the original hypothesis that cytochrome C will travel closest to the cathode, and myoglobin and haemoglobin will travel to the anode with serum albumen being the closest to the anode. These consequences clearly show the relationship between motion of proteins and their isoelectric point ( pi ) . The greater the difference is between pi of proteins and pH of the buffer, the farther the proteins are from the well in this experiment. The protein with a higher pi than the pH of the buffer was positively charged because it accepted hydrogen ions from the buffer. Then this positively charged protein moved to the negative part, or cathode because it was attracted by hydroxyl ions formed at the cathode by the electrode reactions. When this protein bonded with hydroxyl ions, it became impersonal and stopped its motion. On the other manus, the protein with lower pi than the pH of the buffer was attracted by the positive part, or anode, where H ions were formed. Since this protein released H ions to the buffer, it became negatively charged and moved to the anode to bond with H ions to go impersonal. The IEF cataphoresis utilizing agarose gels have been used by research workers, and this technique has proved to be an efficient method for dividing little measures of proteins. U. Ravnskov ( 1975 ) provinces in his article Low molecular weight albuminuria in association with paroxysmal myoglobinuria that agarose gel cataphoresis is a great method to divide myoglobin and haemoglobin. The difference between haemoglobin and myoglobin in pi is 0.4, yet the IEF horizontal agarose gel cataphoresis with 15? ? cubic decimeter of measure visualized this difference. A survey performed by C. Caudie, O. Allauzen, J. Bancel, and R. Later ( 2000 ) used agarose gel IEF and IgG immunorevelation to observe IgG oligoclonal sets ( OCB ) . Their decision was that IEF with immune sensing is the most sensitive and specific trial for the sensing of chronic CNS redness. Similar research was performed by J. Lunding, R. Midgard, and CA. Vedeler ( 2000 ) who compared the high quality of IEF, agarose gel cataphoresis ( AGE ) , and IgG index in sensitivity and specificity in observing nervous system upset. Restricted OCB were found in IEF and AGE, and the research workers found that more accurate consequences were obtained from IEF. Besides, IEF was far better than IgG index in finding intrathecal IgG synthesis. As research workers recommended IEF, the migration of all four proteins were successful with IEF utilizing the horizontal agarose gel even with the little sum of protein samples. This technique could be used in analysis, purification, and sensing of proteins . Improvements could be made in the declaration of the protein set in the agarose gel and experimental clip. Improvement in declaration could be achieved by cut downing the diffusion. An addition of the viscousness of the agarose gel reduces the diffusion, and declaration would therefore addition. The inauspicious consequence of this method is that it would decelerate down the experiment because the addition of viscousness of the agarose gel increases the clash of proteins. Increasing the experimental clip reduces the declaration and therefore is non ever a successful method to better declaration. This method would non be a good method for the proteins cytochrome C, myoglobin, haemoglobin, and serum albumen because Figures 2, 3, 4, and 5 show that haemoglobin and serum albumens are greater in size. That is, haemoglobin and serum albumens tend to be influenced by the clash. Another method to better the declaration is to increase the strength of the electric field. This method besides re duces the clip of the migration of the proteins. The lone thing to be careful with about this method is the temperature of the agarose gel because the high electric field produces heat, and this might do the proteins to be denatured. Literature Cited Ravnskov, U. ( 1975, February ) . Low molecular weight albuminuria in association with paroxysmal myoglobinuria. [ Abstract ] Clin Nephrol 1975 Feb ; 3 ( 2 ) . 65-9. Retrieved January 31, 2001 from the WWW: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi? cmd=Retrieve amp ; db=PubMed A ; list_uids=47277 A ; dopt=Abstract Caudie, C. , Allauzen, O. , Bancel, J. , and Later, R. ( 2000 March-April ) . Role of isoelectric focussing of cerebrospinal fluid Ig G in the early biological appraisal of multiple induration. [ Abstract ] Annales de Biologie Clinique. Vol. 58, Issue 2, 187-93. Retrieved February 2, 2001 from the WWW: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi? cmd=Retrieve amp ; db=PubMed A ; list_uids=10760705 A ; dopt=Abstract Lunding, J. , Midgard, R. , and Vedeler, CA. ( 2000 Nov ) . Oligoclonal sets in cerebrospinal fluid: a comparative survey of isoelectric focussing, agarose gel cataphoresis and IgG index. [ Abstract ] Acta Neurol Scand 2000 Nov ; 102 ( 5 ) . 322-5. Retrieved February 2, 2001 from the WWW: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi? cmd=Retrieve amp ; db=PubMed A ; list_uids=11083510 A ; dopt=Abstract Natural Toxins Research Center at Texas A A ; M University. Isoelectric concentrating. Retrieved January 29, 2001 from the WWW: hypertext transfer protocol: //ntri.tamuk.edu/if/if.html Bibliography Literature Cited Ravnskov, U. ( 1975, February ) . Low molecular weight albuminuria in association with paroxysmal myoglobinuria. [ Abstract ] Clin Nephrol 1975 Feb ; 3 ( 2 ) . 65-9. Retrieved January 31, 2001 from the WWW: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi? cmd=Retrieve amp ; db=PubMed A ; list_uids=47277 A ; dopt=Abstract Caudie, C. , Allauzen, O. , Bancel, J. , and Later, R. ( 2000 March-April ) . Role of isoelectric focussing of cerebrospinal fluid Ig G in the early biological appraisal of multiple induration. [ Abstract ] Annales de Biologie Clinique. Vol. 58, Issue 2, 187-93. Retrieved February 2, 2001 from the WWW: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi? cmd=Retrieve amp ; db=PubMed A ; list_uids=10760705 A ; dopt=Abstract Lunding, J. , Midgard, R. , and Vedeler, CA. ( 2000 Nov ) . Oligoclonal sets in cerebrospinal fluid: a comparative survey of isoelectric focussing, agarose gel cataphoresis and IgG index. [ Abstract ] Acta Neurol Scand 2000 Nov ; 102 ( 5 ) . 322-5. Retrieved February 2, 2001 from the WWW: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi? cmd=Retrieve amp ; db=PubMed A ; list_uids=11083510 A ; dopt=Abstract Natural Toxins Research Center at Texas A A ; M University. Isoelectric concentrating. Retrieved January 29, 2001 from the WWW: hypertext transfer protocol: //ntri.tamuk.edu/if/if.html

My Philosophical Approach To Counseling Essay Paper Example For Students

My Philosophical Approach To Counseling Essay Paper My Philosophical Approach to CounselingDefinition of Existential TherapyOne survey taken by Corey suggests a definition of Existential Therapyinclude two key elements:Existential Therapy is essentially an approach to counseling and therapyrather than a firm theoretical model, it stresses core human conditions. Normally, personality development is based on the uniqueness of eachindividual. Sense of self develops from infancy. Self determination and atendency toward growth are control ideas. Focus is on the present and on whatone is becoming; that is the approach has a future orientation. It stressesself-awareness before action. (1996, p.465)In layman terms, Existential therapy can be described as a philosophicalapproach that is not designed to cure people but instead help the client reflectand search for value and meaning in life. Existential Therapy does not supply acookbook of methods like other approaches but instead it provides a frameworkthat is adaptable to the therapist, in which to view the individual and theworld in which they participate. Definition of Person-Centered (Client-Centered) Therapy According to Mosbys Medical, Nursing, and Allied Health Dictionary,client-centered therapy is a non directive method of group or individualpsychotherapy, originated by Carl Rogers, in which the role of the therapist isto listen to and reflect or restate without judgment or interpretation the wordsof the client. Objectives of Existential TherapyThe objectives of Existential Therapy are quite unique. Existentialcounselors are focused on helping the client achieve and expand their self-awareness. Many Therapist assume once self awareness is achieved, the clientcan examine new ways of dealing with problems and except the responsibility ofchoosing. Objectives of Client-centered TherapyThe objective of client-centered therapy is to assist the client toexperience self exploration, so that they can identify problems that arehindering their growth process. Essentially, the main goal of client-centeredtherapy is to have the client achieve a sense of increased awareness andunderstanding of his attitudes, feelings, and behaviors. Professional OpinionsExistential and client-centered therapy have been criticized for notbeing scientific enough. They have been down played as not being empiricaland not having a therapeutic model that is firmly set in stone with a set ofmethods and interventions. A large number of therapist feel that Existentialand client-centered therapy are not sound therapeutic approaches for treatingand diagnosing adolescents. One main reason for this argument is theexistential view toward adolescence. Existentialist view adolescence as a timewhen a young person begins to gain a sense of awareness on a surface level. After achieving this level, the adolescent gradually starts to focus on selfmeaning, which takes place through the development of their identity(Hacker,1994). Existentialist also believe that how the individual conceptilizes deathplays a part in the whole being of the person. A survey of 82 students revealedpeople viewed death as cold and denied. This information indicates death isvery influencial in creating anxiety in people (Westman, 1992, p. 1064). Existential and client-centered therapy have not labeled themselves witha distinct clinical procedure, instead these techniques and concepts have beeneffective in helping patients to recognize and accomplish their goals. For this reason, I believe existential thought coupled with client-centeredtherapy are appropriate in treating clients who confront some type of obstacleor major event in their life (confronting death, sudden isolation, changing fromchildhood to adolescence). David Cain(1993), a person-centered therapist,believes client-centered therapy is not a wise decision for treating clients insome cases, he sites that due to the lack of evolution of Client-centeredtherapy and the client-centered communitys unwillingness to change with theadvancements of counseling and psychotherapy has limited the therapeuticapproach. .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4 , .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4 .postImageUrl , .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4 , .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4:hover , .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4:visited , .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4:active { border:0!important; } .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4:active , .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4 .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u230668310cd5530bb3dad8c326eeb6e4:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Scope of Strategic Marketing EssayOn the otherhand, therapist Philip Kendall and Michael A. Southam-Gerow,seem to recognize the importance of client-centered therapy. Kendall andSoutham-Gerow conducted a study which examined the long-term effects ofpsychosocial treatment for anxiety disordered youth, which they evaluated thelong term effects and the effective components of the treatment. The results from the study revealed that children and adolescent clientstreated two to five years earlier with psychotherapy retained their gains overanxiety related disorders(p 728). Kendall noted the lack of anxiety related problems could have resultedfrom the clients maturation and not the long-term effects of therapy. Thisevidence alone exhibits just one aspect of the tremendous effects of client-centered psychotherapy. The study also demonstrated the variety of techniquesused with the clients, which ranged from relaxation exercises to role playing. Another ongoing criticism of the two dynamic approaches to therapy isgender plays a major role in the outcome of therapy. Researchers (Porter, Cox,Williams, Wagner, Johnson, 1996.) have provided research to argue this point. They conducted a study, which a Client-Behavioral system was used toevaluate the therapeutic process with 27 sexually abused girls who were enrolledin individual counseling, the study revealed that when sexual abuse was formallytaught that the girls were more likely to answer with abuse related answers inresponse to child abuse questions, regardless of whether the counselor was maleor female. Summary and ConclusionOne can see from the material provided that there are some recurringthemes in the areas of client-centered and existential psychology: The searchfor meaning and value in life, self-awareness, and behavior. While existentialand client-centered roots are planted firmly in philosophical and humanisticstyles of thinking without clear evidence of any scientific model,existentialism and client-centered therapy offers the science of psychology apath much different than the other approaches to therapy that seek only ascientific outcome. Existential and client-centered offer a alternative form oftherapy, a phenomenological approach to the person, not a look at the instinctsof the person, not a separation of the id, the ego, and superego, but a view ofthe entire being in the now. The drawbacks of existential and client-centered therapy have beenstated as a basic lack of pure scientific methodology. These two approaches donot offer a textbook of how to techniques, but instead they offer a viewpoint,a lens, a way of picturing the person and the world in which they live. Itoffers a way to view oneself, as a therapist, a motivator, and as a helper. They do not however, offer a fix-all to every problem, rather they seek to helpthe client realize responsibility for their actions and thoughts while helpingthe client gain a deep sense of awareness and trust in themselves in thetherapeutic relationship. BibliographyCain, D. J. (1993). The uncertain future of client-centered counseling. Journal of Humanistic Education and Development. 31 (3), 133-138. Client-Centered Therapy Dictionary Definition. Mosbys Medical, Nursing, andAllied Health Dictionary. CD-ROM Abstract from: Health Reference Center. FileNumber: 00009108. Corey, G. (1996). Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy. (Rev. ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Coleman. Hacker, D. J. (1994). An Existential View of Adolescence. Journal of EarlyAdolescence. 14. (3), 300-327. Kendall, P., ; Southam-Gerow, M.(1996). Long-term follow-up of a Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety-Disordered Youth. Journal of Consulting andClinical Psychology. 64.(4), 724-730. Porter, R. L., Wagner W., Johnson, J., ; Cox, L. M. (1996). Sexually abusedgirls verbalizations in counseling: an application of the client behaviorsystem. CD-ROM. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 43. (4), 383-389. Abstract from:Health Reference Center. File Number: 18987461. Westman, A. S., (1992). Existential Anxiety as Related to Conceptualization ofSelf and of Death, Denial of Death, and Religiosity. Psychological Reports. 71. .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd , .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd .postImageUrl , .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd , .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd:hover , .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd:visited , .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd:active { border:0!important; } .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd:active , .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u82a3f541a1707865f3f0db61502b34fd:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: biotechnology Essay1064-1066. AbstractThis paper examined two philosophical and humanistic approaches I have chosenas my rationale to counseling and psychotherapy. The paper will define andexplain the objectives and techniques of these two dynamic therapies. Furthermore, it will illustrate existential and client-centered therapysimportance in regards to treating adolescence.

Human Resource Management in tourism

Indian Law and Karma essays

Indian Law and Karma essays Indian society operates under two very different systems of law, one ancient, cyclical and metaphysical in nature, and the other modern, statutory, and civil, being grounded in the tradition of English common law as established during the imperial period of the Raj. The one system has jurisdiction over eternal matters of life, death and rebirth, and over social status and obligation in the sphere of earthly existence. The other, Western-based system is familiar to us through the institutions of a local, state and federal judiciary, presided over by a high court that dispenses justice according to the laws and proceedings of a formal, independent and constitutional system. India's independent judicial system originated under the British imperial regime, and today its concepts and procedures resemble those of Anglo-American countries also grounded in common law.(Lingat, 1973) India's chaotic legal system is, however, something of an impediment to the country's economic and political unity. Derived variously from the constitution, statutes, customary law and case law, it is largely based on English law as it existed under British colonial rule. While U.S. or U.K. law have been revised several times since World War II, India's has not been overhauled once. While certain areas have been adapted and modernized, the body of law as a whole is arcane and outdated, confused by updates and revisions, and circumnavigated with regulations and bureaucracy. Indian courts have jurisdiction over most economic and political transactions, regardless of their nature. At the apex of the entire judicial system is the Supreme Court of India in New Delhi. It has original, appellate and advisory jurisdiction and is empowered to issue directions, orders or writs, and to enforce them. Supreme Court judges are appointed by the president of India and remain in office until the age of 65. At the next level is the High Court, of which there is one in each stat...

Hitlers Table Talk Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hitlers Table Talk - Essay Example Hitler was born in a Catholic home and he became a staunch Catholic once he began school. It is noted that he even contemplated becoming a priest because the Catholic faith was good to him. After the death of his brother in 1900, his passion for church declined. This may have been as a result of a blow in his belief about God and Jesus being a healer and yet his brother died of measles and God did not help him (Weinberg 53). The invasion of Vienna by Jews whom according to him seem to want to take over the country also further drove him away from Christianity and his belief in God. However he believed and continued to believe in Islam and even Japanese religious culture and hence that may be reason why he did not want to interfere much with religious issues as he did not understand them that well as he thought he did. Hitler’s earlier staunch belief in the Catholic faith and even his support and following of Martin Luther’s protestant movement indicate that he truly continued to follow Christian teachings. This may be the reason why he made that this talk because he did not try to force people to leave their Christianity faith even though he considered parts of the faith to be superstitious like that of the Jews. Even though Hitler was not so religious and especially after he gained power in Germany and he was said to be anti-Semitic, he never denied anyone the freedom of religion. It’s openly known that he was constantly in conflict with the Catholic Church but he did not openly denounce his faith in the church and it is still thought that he died a catholic. His lack of denial of people to worship and his joining of protestants which had almost the same rituals as those performed in a catholic mass strongly supports this table talk from him (Weinberg 135). Hitler is known to have positive comments about Islamic religion and even supported the religious culture of the

Film Reflection Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Film Reflection - Movie Review Example This includes the search for a good career that is believed to be in the Canada, the good education system in Canada (Srabani M Tania Das G 2015) indicates, that the desire to have a sense of belonging which covers the political and cultural aspects of the theory is also one of the attractants. A good Canadian health system is also one of the things that led the women into the country. A desire to explore oneself and adventure was also cited as one of the reasons for migration. Some women desire to develop themselves by putting into practice their creative ideas and, as a result, migrate to Canada as they believe there is a good self-nurturing environment. The women face various challenges in Canada. This relates well to the post-colonial feminist theory that depicts the struggles for recognition for non-western women. The struggles for the three women include the long periods taken before being processed and accepted after the application for immigration. For example, it took 6-8 years before the application to be accepted. The first impression of Canada is contrary to their opinion and expectations. Most of them expected Canada to a colorful and developed country only to find it empty as compared to their homes. They also expected to settle into stable jobs within a short duration of time after arriving into the country. However, they find it difficult to get employment and some have to do jobs that not within their area of expertise so as to pay the bills despite the dissatisfaction it brings them. The women realized that not everything was as easy as they thought it would be. It depicts that within a span of one, over 280,000 individuals tend to move from their native land to get asylum in Canada. The film also describes the changes in education that they had to make once in Canada despite their earlier skills and past knowledge. This lack of recognition of their past qualifications shows discrimination of the women by the

Why fear big business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Why fear big business - Essay Example Capitalism is said to have begun in 1834 in England, another reason the cartoonist would want to use a European Knight. The late nineteenth century saw the US thoroughly changed by the Industrial Revolution from a principally agricultural state that ranked well behind England, France, and Germany to the world’s most formidable industrial power by it is today (Keene et al., pg. 56). Whereas many Americans celebrated the Industrial Revolution for the unparalleled material wealth and growth it brought to the society, others became concerned by some of the dingy significances of industrializations. The consequence of these disagreeing visions was an extreme debate over the appropriate role of the state in regulating the economy, the workers’ rights to form unions and advocate for better pay and working conditions. The emergence of big corporations in the late nineteenth century during the period of rapid economic growth saw the rise of very powerful men. The choice of color and placement in the drawing provokes only appreciation of the cartoonist’s work. All the objects the cartoonist uses to depict the situation that presented the American worker are thought for. Whereas the average worker has only the strike as the weapon, the large corporations have the power to bribe not only the press for favorable coverage but also to state officials suppressing the government for laws that were good for business. The two different onlookers, the comfortably-seated and widely-smiling business tycoons and the standing hunger-stricken workers help the viewer see how much disparity existed in America. While the handful of the tycoons on the left sit under a shade, there is no shade for the seemingly endless crowd. It symbolizes how malnourished the people are- something that is father supported by the look on the children’s face (Keene et al.,

The rationale of ICT in schools

The rationale of ICT in schools ICT does not influence academic achievement. 1.0 Introduction From the first periods when computers were marketable existed, they could be discovered in use in educational association. Teachers had quarreled that computers should be used to support learning. Initially computers were used to teach computer programming but the growth of the microprocessor in the early 1970s saw the introduction of affordable microcomputers into schools at a fast rate. Computers and products of technology became more enveloping in society which then led to a interest about the need for computing skills in everyday life. As public awareness grew, this need for computer literacy became more powerful and many schools bought computers based on this principle. In 1990s was the year of computer communications and information access, particularly with the popularity and accessibility of internet-based services such as electronic mail and the World Wide Web. At the same time the CD-ROM became the standard for sharing packaged software. Until now, the development of computers still ongoing process becoming more advances every day. Today computers in schools are both a focus of study in technology education and a support for learning and teaching process. In Malaysia education, ICT known as Information Communication Technology was first established starting in year 2001 as Ministry of Education sees ICT as a process, not limited to the end itself. So, all attempts are focused in developing the new medium as items in the service of affluent curriculum, to improve teaching skills, more efficient organisational structures in schools, stronger link between schools and public, and the empowerment of deprived students. The Ministry trusts that suitably planned and implemented computing and communications have the latent to revolutionise education and improve learning as profoundly as information technology has transformed medicine, finance, manufacturing and numerous other sectors of society. Technology is not seen as a supplement whose mere existence in schools can speed up better educational results. Technology is also not seen as simply another subject in the curriculum, suited primarily for teaching students to use tools they may encounter as mature. The idea of ICT in education, as seen by the Ministry of Education, comprises a system that allows information gathering, organisation, handling, access, and communication in various forms. 1.1 ICT Policies in Malaysia Mevarech Light (1992) had discussed that when the potential use of computers in schools was first established, the main idea of the public was that students would be taught by computers and many of them offended this idea of teaching. They thought it was considered that the computer would take over the teachers job in much the same way as a robot may take over a mechanics job at the factory. In Malaysia as seen by Ministry of Education, they have implemented three policies related to the using of ICT in teaching and learning process especially in schools and universities. They currently have invented three main policies for ICT in education starting in the year 2001. The first policy is that of ICT for all students, significance that ICT is used as a medium to decrease the digital chasm between the schools. The second policy stresses on the role and function of ICT in education as a teaching and learning tool, as part of a subject, and as a subject by itself. Other than radio and television as a teaching and learning instrument, this policy highlights the use of the computer for accessing information, communication, and as a productivity tool. ICT as part of a subject directs to the applied of software in subjects such as Invention and Engineering Drawing. Information Technology and Computerisation are the subjects that referred to the ICT have been introduced in the sch ool timetable. The third policy highlights the using ICT to increase production, efficiency and effectiveness of the management system. ICT will be broadly used to mechanise work processes such as the processing of official forms, timetable, running of information systems, lesson preparation, financial draft and the care of account. 1.3 The Rationale of ICT in Schools It is needed to develop a very detailed rationale before beginning to use computers in schools and classrooms. There is no meaning in providing computers in schools unless such a rationale has been done. With the increasing availability of computer hardware, it is very crucial that teachers do not become involved in the machine but focus rather on their main role as teachers. Teachers need to widen their imaginations with the awareness that as developments in computer technology occur they will be able to achieve more of their objectives in teaching the students. Collis (1989) had described that these view of students sitting behind computer for much of the day have largely not occurred in mainstream schools, and most would not like this to be realised. Since the 1960s the computer has been established they had seen the computers as the solution to many problems in education. With this, many early computer scientists saw the possibility of the computer replacing teachers in schools. There are three main rationales for ICT in schools, one concerns the organisational productivity of the school, and the other two focus on the needs of students which are technological literacy and support for their learning. The two rationales are assisted by the Australian report Raising the Standards (DEST, 2002, p. 38) The need for ICT competent teachers stems from the need for ICT competent studentsand for ICT-rich learning environments that enhance students learning across the curriculum. Becker et al (1999) have said that despite from in a few excellent schools, computers had only a minimum effect on what happens in classrooms in the 20th century. There has been much argue over the purposes for this difference between the potential and what is realised. The computer is one of a type of technologies now available to teachers and students. In these cases a large amount of money was spent on these resources which some would argue would have been better spent on other resources. It is important that rare resources to support learning in schools are not wasted and therefore care needs to be taken in choosing to use computers to support learning. Historically, technology has been developed to answer problems, develop living standards. Therefore, it is reasonable that we should expect educational technology to be developed with similar objectives that is to increase the productivity and solve problems in teaching and learning syllabus. 2.0 Educational Technology Solves Problems Actually, computers are the best medium in resolving the problems that the teachers and students encounter. If the computer is a problem-solving machine then it must be applied to normal school problems such as those concerning student learning, teacher instruction, and school administration. Educational Technology should be selected on the source that it has the better features for the achievement of the curriculum. This subject should be used efficiently or better not used it at all as these involves the problem in the implementation of the curriculum, teachers who know how to use the technology effectively and teachers together with students who know how to work with the technology. There are many possible functions for computers in the learning process. In some conditions changes in related business makes computer use in schools necessary. For example, to provide courses in technical drawing, music, statistics, and business which do not incorporate computer use reduces the relevancy of the courses to the real world. Any reasons for the use of computers in the large section of schooling dedicated to basic education, such as mathematics, social science, science, communication and language, which are required more crucial examination. By considering the mathematics teaching area and the problems related with student learning. Mathematics has tended to be very abstract which they cannot see while most students are likely to work on a solid level. Using concrete materials in some teaching is practical but often not suitable. The computer can give experiences with virtual solid materials. In advancing the problems associated with curative and increase of students, computer can be use to provide appropriate material and overcome classroom management problems. However, a computer solution is not necessarily the best solution. The problems associated with student learning are most often discipline and even teacher specific. Therefore each teacher needs to think the problems associated with student learning in his/her subject area and be aware of the computer solutions. 3.0 Impact of ICT in Learning While academic discussions can be put ahead to give a strong reason for the use of ICT, the only real reason is based on whether, in practice, it has a positive impact on learning, the students, and teachers. While it would be suitable to be able to make a direct relationship between the use of ICT and learning result, most reliable researchers today would agree that there will never be a direct link because learning is mediated through the learning environment and ICT is only one element of that environment. Studies that have tried to identify this mediated effect of ICT on learning have found it impossible to entirely remove the effects of other aspect of learning environment. There is small reason in attempting to evaluate the cognitive results when using computers and with the uses of a textbook or some other resource such as articles and journals. This view is supported by Salomon (1994) as he argued that it is impossible to study the effect of computer function in the deficiency of the other reason or to assume that the only a cause independently effected the results outcomes (p. 80). Meanwhile, De Corte (1990) said that the educational goal is to implement the computer assist in the learning atmosphere rather than trying to separate its effect on learning. Using computers in learning is affected with ways of using the technology to make environments and learning states. There have been many years of educational research, not necessarily related to using computers but also on which to basic choices about suitable applications of computers to be learned. Mevarech and Light (1992) had suggested that the links between students attribute, learning environments, manners and schooling outcomes are essential and need further research, yet there has been much research which has considered these relationships in other background than ICT. If the objective is to offer new learning opportunities or to improve the way in which current learning activities are implemented then the overall effectiveness of learning environments and parts is of main concern, not whether they are more helpful with or without computers. Therefore in implementing computer applications, it is required to begin by choosing what a student, teacher or school wants to gain. To get these results, teachers can then depend on long practises of educational idea, their own experience and knowledge of the educational situation for example the student attributes, to make decisions about what the learning environment should look like and what information into the learning process are needed. A report from the ImpaCT2 study (Becta, 2002, p. 3) conducted in the UK found that, There is no consistent relationship between the average amount of ICT use reported for any subject at a given key stage and its apparent effectiveness in raising standards. It therefore seems likely that the type of use is all important. While there is no direct link between using ICT and student learning as the mass of proof now clearly shows that indirectly there can be a significant positive impact. Schachter (1999) had discovered that students who learned computer-based instruction scored at least sixty four percent on tests of achievement compared to students in the control conditions without computers who scored only at fifty percent. Laferrià ¨re, Breuleux, Bracewell (1999) had found that if the students are given right situation for access and use, there will be a significance gained in students learning with ICT. While, Becta (2002) learned that there are very clear differences in achievement related to the uses of ICT in more than half of all differences made between studentss expected scores and actual scores. 4.0 Conclusion As the conclusion, ICT have both its rationales and the reasons why this component should be implemented in the schools and universities although there are some negative impacts that will occur if ICT does not being use wisely. These changes should also support better use of ICT to support learning and teaching processes when they are well implemented in schools. Therefore it is mainly at the school and individual teacher point that changes may be needed. For some schools this will be huge adjustment while for others much of the step has already occurred. Fundamentally any change is aimed at improving the educational opportunities for all students and not just to make use of ICT. At all times the focus must be on improved outcomes for students and not on how the technology is used. Obviously we cannot be assured with the current educational outcomes for Malaysian students and the evidence is rising that we can make significant improvements with the suitable use of ICT. Large savings have been made in ICT for schools and there is a need to take report of how effective that investment has been and where further investment should be made to extend the effect of ICT on learning results for students. 2000 words

Graduation Speech: We Dit It! :: Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

After being at County High for four years I can honestly say I will never forget my time here. I've met tons of people and have had some great experiences. I'm really honored to be given the chance to speak at our graduation. I've spent time with my fellow graduates and have gotten a comment on each of our staff members: "Nancy has always been there for me through boys, family and whatever. I'm grateful for her friendship." "Lynn just can't get mad, which was always cool with me." "Without Vickie, County High wouldn't be County High. She is our glue." "Mr. Leatherman taught us how to take care of plants and sheep. He kicked us out of class a lot, but we all love him anyways." "Frank is the 'picture master' and the reason why most of us are graduating." "Rusti has brought a new ray of sunshine to the daycare and has been an inspiration to all of us." "Persis was always warm-hearted with unique ideas and creative inventions." "Mary whole-heartedly tried to make things run smoothly and made sure every senior was on the ball." "Jerry always has a joke to share with us." "Renee had high expectations for her students and really tried to help us meet them." "Alison is a motivator. She wanted us to be the best she knew we could be. "Leanne: settle down and relax. You don't always have to work so hard." Angie brought some Southern hospitality to school and is the sweetest thing." "Krystal has taken charge of daycare and we're glad to have her with us." "Kathy was so kind and tried her best to help us learn math because it really is important." "Bruce was always doing his best to help us pass class and was always there to give advice. We all miss him." Every person I met through County High had some impact on me, whether they became my best friend, enemy or secret crush.

An Era of European Imperialism

Unit 2: An Era of European Imperialism Imperialism has had its breadth in existence from a very long time ago, even before the Industrial Revolution. Industrialized countries pursed imperialism for many reasons. Imperialism is the creation and maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationship, usually between states and often in the form of an empire, which is based on domination and subordination. Although imperialism was in occurrence before the First and Second Revolution, it impacted the world in the time between these two revolutions.Europe was facing a new era of imperialism, and the First Industrial Revolution was only its way of beginning. The First Industrial Revolution was occurring from 1750 to 1850. This dramatically changed the economic and cultural conditions of the nation based on advances in agriculture, transportation, mining, and manufacturing. With the cottage industry’s advancement to a textile industry, there were mass productions of textile with the invention of the Spinning Jenny, and there were also migrations to urban centers.Coal was used as energy during this time. There was population growth throughout this period due to the vast productions, leading people to live longer. Moreover, the invention of the steam boat/ship, in the late 1700s improved travel drastically. The quicker and more reliable steam ships allowed Europe to exploit their colonies. They established colonies in Africa, India, China, the Ottoman Empire, Persia, and South America it was depended that they had a good resource in getting there.They were able to sell their manufactured products in the markets they had set up in these places. All these ideas/manufactures were contributions to not only the Second Industrial Revolution, but also on imperialism; which impacted the whole world. Furthermore, the Second Industrial Revolution occurred during the late 1800s to the early 1900s leading onto World War I. This revolution began with the m ovement of new inventions. Electricity, steel, petroleum, and chemicals were the main new advancements. Electricity replaced coal for energy, and was more efficient.Steel was the new iron, because it was much more durable and lighter, it was even better on the economy. Other inventions like the light bulb, radio waves, telephones, and the internal combustion engine rapidly spread throughout the world, leading to profit. Trade labor unions arose, as well as women and labor reforms. All these things were impacts on imperialism throughout the world. Warfare was also an impact on the Industrial Revolution. Technological advancements in warfare made conquering undeveloped countries very easy.This made their power and influence stronger. On the other side of the world, we had countries like China and Japan, which was kept, isolated from the world. These places did not want to adapt western influences because it would drive them from their cultural ways. In China, they were undergoing what was known as the Boxer Rebellion, which allowed the killing of outsiders who were bringing other influences to China. There was also the Opium War happening in Japan, which allowed the country to industrialize itself a bit.Because of industrialization, China and Japan were able to grow in ways they would have never achieved if they had never adapted western influences. Although imperialism was in occurrence before the First and Second Revolution, it impacted the world in the time between these two revolutions. Capitalism was a key concept that was used to make profit off of laborers that lived in industrialized areas. Capitalism is an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state.Basically, this is an economical system based on all greed in money and power. Capitalism controlled the environment in the First and Second Industrial Revolution. The countries and companies that supported capita lism were eventually going to lead laborers to seek new opportunities and resources of growth. This would lead people to seek and explore new places. Exploration would cause taking advantage of other people, hence, imperialism. The times of the revolutions would lead to imperialism throughout the world because the industries were being operated by capitalism.

Tromaville Coalition Essays - Membrane Biology, Cell Biology

Tromaville Coalition Essays - Membrane Biology, Cell Biology Tromaville Coalition Member of the Tromaville Coalition Chemistry 1. a) Bulk movement is the overall movement of a fluid. The molecules all move in the same direction. Diffusion however is the random movement of molecules which usually results in a fairly even distribution. In other words the movement is not guaranteed to move in one direction but the probability that it will move in the lower gradient is greater. Osmosis is similar to diffusion but is differentiated by the membrane's behavior. The cell membrane does allow water to move from higher to lower concentrations but does not allow solutes do that. b) Water potential is the capacity of water to move to a from a region where there is high water potential to low water potential. This action happens without the affect of outside forces. When outside actions due occur and they give water a high potential energy than the water will move to the region where less potential energy is. Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure required to stop water the movement of water. This is a method of measurement. The osmotic potential is the measure of tendency of water to move through a membrane which contains a solution. This occurs when a cell does not allow a hypertonic solution to leave the cell membrane. The cell begins to increase with water but the cell membrane can not release the solution and thus the water potential within the cell increases. This causes the water to no longer enter the cell. c) Hypotonic is less solute to a certain amount of water. Hypertonic is more solute to a certain amount of water. Isotonic is the equal amount of solutes in two different solutions. d) Endocytosis is the inward bulge causes by incoming molecules. Exocytosis is the expelling of a material outside a cell. e) Phagocytosis is the process where the cell obtains solid matter. This is different from the pinocytosis where the cell obtains liquid matter. These both are endocytic processes. Receptor-mediated endocytosis is the process where there are interactions between a material and receptor sites on the cell. In this process the cell accepts the material if it matches with the receptor sites. f) Coated pits are areas which peripheral proteins indent the membrane. This is where the vesicles for certain materials are formed. The vesicle which is formed is called the coated vesicle. g) Plasmodesmata are the links which hold two adjacent cells together. Gap junctions are the channels which allow materials to flow between cells. 2. The concentration gradient is the difference in the density of a material from one region to another region. The concentration gradient affects diffusion by allowing the substance to flow from high concentration to low concentration. The concentration gradient affects osmosis by the same manner it does in diffusion. The cell does not allow the solution to exit the cell when water is entering. This keeps the solution in the cell making the concentration high and thus no further penetration of water. 4. Diffusion is more rapid in gases because they are less dense than liquids. They repel each other more resulting in faster diffusion. Diffusion is greater at higher temperatures because of the greater kinetic energy among the molecules. They push each other more making them less dense. 5. The concentration of the solute is 1%. This happens because a 1% sugar solution is isotonic with that of the 1% sugar solution in the tubes. The 2% sugar solution was increased because the substance was hypertonic. The membrane did not allow the hypertonic solution to exit because the pressure from the hypotonic solution was forcing water in. This later reached an equilibrium when the hypertonic solution was gaining water potential and the water stopped rising. The vice versa happened in the distilled water solution.

Free Essays on Book Prices

Book Prices Books are an essential part in the successful outcome of excellence for students. College students must go through numerous hurdles, one of them is buying books throughout their four years of college. Although many were warned of the stress of it all, very few were actually prepared for the financial attack upon his or her bank account. By its cost, one would expect the book itself to amazingly increase one’s intellect, when in actuality it simply confuses all of those in search of answers. It is a problem that every student must encounter and deal with at the beginning of every semester. Something that no one really looks forward to, I mean, who wants to spend that much money on books? Why not just invest it else where? Maybe buying a Mercedes with a nice leather interior would make more sense, but then again, books will have to do in this case. In truth, it is a problem created out of pure greed by those attempting to make money off their merchandise. This is a problem that the administration of Kennesaw State University should prioritize in order to fin d a solution. As an incoming freshman, I was truly excited about the new journey I was about to embark on. The anxiety is what made me look forward to college so desperately. Although I was warned about the ridiculous prices of books, I was not fully prepared for what I would encounter at the bookstore. As dad and I so naively went through my book Da Silva 2 list, I soon discovered how bad the situation really was. It was a Friday afternoon when my journey begun along with dad . I never knew one could spend over two hundred dollars within a time frame of fifteen minutes to buy five books. The reality of it remained that my books needed to be bought and nothing could be done to change that. Dad was extremely shocked and could hardly believe what had taken place just then. He looked like he had been raped by someone he knew his whole life. He tried to gracefully ... Free Essays on Book Prices Free Essays on Book Prices Book Prices Books are an essential part in the successful outcome of excellence for students. College students must go through numerous hurdles, one of them is buying books throughout their four years of college. Although many were warned of the stress of it all, very few were actually prepared for the financial attack upon his or her bank account. By its cost, one would expect the book itself to amazingly increase one’s intellect, when in actuality it simply confuses all of those in search of answers. It is a problem that every student must encounter and deal with at the beginning of every semester. Something that no one really looks forward to, I mean, who wants to spend that much money on books? Why not just invest it else where? Maybe buying a Mercedes with a nice leather interior would make more sense, but then again, books will have to do in this case. In truth, it is a problem created out of pure greed by those attempting to make money off their merchandise. This is a problem that the administration of Kennesaw State University should prioritize in order to fin d a solution. As an incoming freshman, I was truly excited about the new journey I was about to embark on. The anxiety is what made me look forward to college so desperately. Although I was warned about the ridiculous prices of books, I was not fully prepared for what I would encounter at the bookstore. As dad and I so naively went through my book Da Silva 2 list, I soon discovered how bad the situation really was. It was a Friday afternoon when my journey begun along with dad . I never knew one could spend over two hundred dollars within a time frame of fifteen minutes to buy five books. The reality of it remained that my books needed to be bought and nothing could be done to change that. Dad was extremely shocked and could hardly believe what had taken place just then. He looked like he had been raped by someone he knew his whole life. He tried to gracefully ...

Exam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 7

Exam - Essay Example The most prevalent theory of buyer behaviour in respect of marketing activities is the ‘Utility Theory.’ This theory proposes that; buyers make decisions based on the expected result of their decisions (Bray, 2012). Buyers employ a rational behaviour when choosing commodities to consume; that is, they are concerned with self interest. Marketers are always aware that buyers will only consider the products and services that achieve the highest level of satisfaction. With this knowledge, companies produce products that meet the buyers’ needs. This theory views a buyer as ‘a rational man.’ Companies are influenced by this behaviour to design a product or service that will be desirable to the buyers. Marketing activities tend to focus on research and pricing domain of the product or service. There are various factors that influence consumers; according to contemporary research on buyer behaviour. Buyer behaviour arises from the objective of satisfying a need. This stage advances in information search; on a product that satisfies the need. The buyer then evaluates various alternatives obtained from information search. A purchase intention arises from the evaluation of alternatives. The purchase intention triggers the buyer to buy the product or service, consumes it, and then disposes it. This is the complete view of buyer behaviour. Marketers are aware that buyer behaviour advances from; a need to the actual transaction. Marketing activities will tend to focus on promoting their products and services. This promotion creates awareness; that is, it sensitizes the potential buyers about a particular product or service being offered. Buyers tend to apply a cognitive approach when deciding on which products or services to consume. This approach focuses on the buyers’ observed behaviour to intrapersonal cognition. The experience achieved from the previous use of a product or service

The Fight for Womens Rights, Laws, Social movements and Policies Essay

The Fight for Womens Rights, Laws, Social movements and Policies - Essay Example This research paper examines that organizations that are fighting for the rights of the Anishinabe people have a long way to go to ensure equalities. For instance, the mining of taconite in Minnesota has affected the Anishinabe people, other natives, and non-natives in the region. Forests have been deforested for the creation of mining pits. One in ten newborns contains mercury in their systems, and this leads to lung cancer. The organizations in Minnesota have been passing laws that have downplayed environmental protections. The North American Indigenous people have suffered for long periods due to oppression by the white people who came from Europe. They invited laws and policies that oppressed the indigenous people who were the rightful owners of the land. Immediately after the French and English landed, they noted how the indigenous people lived and how the male population treated the women with respect and honor. They introduced laws that had negative impacts on women and childr en and took the land of the aboriginal people. Many groups have come up to fight for the rights of the aboriginals and ensure that they get the chance to enjoy their rights fully. It is a shame how the United States and the Canadian governments have not provided laws to ensure that the aboriginals have obtained full equality. We should take the model of the Anishinabe people who treated everyone equal including the women who were respected. By doing so, we will change the perception of everyone and treat each other equal.

Relationship between the Industrial Revolution and three of the Essay - 1

Relationship between the Industrial Revolution and three of the ideologies - Essay Example The technique is necessary for identification of both primary and secondary stakeholders with stakes in the running of the project. Stakeholder analysis aims at developing a strategic view of the human and institutional landscape. The process of managing stakeholders for any project involves aspects such as identification of all stakeholders, documentation of stakeholder needs, assessment and analysis of influence from stakeholders, managing various expectations from stakeholders, taking actions and review of the status of the project (Phillips, 2003). Stakeholders are known to provide organizations with a range of resources, such as customers, employees and capital, amongst other benefits necessary for conducting businesses. These resources create a link between stakeholders and organizations, hence making organizations responsible for their social and legitimate actions towards consumers. The shift in thinking from financial perspective demands that business organizations consider the impact of their activities on a wide range of stakeholders. Currently, there is a more pressing demand from consumers on the extent to which companies deal with environmental matters. This has made organizations play a vital role in shaping public opinion and environmental policies by complying with social and stakeholder demands, hence legitimizing themselves to acceptable organizational and societal practices (McDonnell and Bartlett, 2009, pp. 63–70; Baker, 1997). Consumers, governmental organizations, and other insurance companies will ma jorly influence this project. All forms of governmental regulations are meant to grant consumers an opportunity to make better environmental decisions. However, difficulties arise especially at the point of establishing policies capable of addressing all areas of concern within the environment (De Bakker, Groenewegen, & Den Hond, 2005). A good example can be drawn from the

The Water Pollution Essay Example for Free

The Water Pollution Essay What can the government do as of now to resolve problems in pollutions, specifically water pollution? Considering the fact that health hazards poses the greatest threats to the people’s survival. On the other hand, how water pollution occurs is the first issue that has to be clarified. According to Hayes (2007), water pollution takes place if there is great accumulation of foreign materials in a body of water. A source of water pollution are categorized into two levels, first is the point source which comes from canals or other sewage tunnels flowing directly to the water system, and second is the non point source when there are instances that pesticides, other chemicals and or garbage fluid leaks to the water system. Water pollution however does not only occur in the bays or streams as a result of runoff of contaminants, and it is not only the big industrial companies are responsible or the source of such contamination, in fact the pollutants being carried in the runoff might have first come from the neighborhood. Posted in Mbgnet (2006) there are many causes and or types of water pollution, these came from toxic substances like herbicides, industrials compounds and other chemicals; organic substances like dung, sewage or other household wastes that increases the eutrophication process of the water system; the thermal pollution which results when large industrial plants uses water from the river to cool their production process resulting to less dissolved oxygen in the water; and ecological pollution like siltation. Based on GEMI (2007), almost 40% of the world will live in fresh water scarcity by 2025 because of the depletion of the water source. This is one of the most adverse effects of water pollution to the ecosystem. As this is seen by continues pollution in underground water and increasing contamination of the river, lakes, oceans and other water systems mostly by industrial wastes and garbage. As cited in Edugreen. teri. res. in (2007), health impact caused by water pollution is primarily water borne diseases like viral, bacterial or protozoan infections. This is a great hazard to the human health because it cannot be acquired only through the water that people drink but also to the organisms that live in or nearby the contaminated waterways. Based on Krantz and Kifferstein’s (2007) study one of the most common practices that are being used to reduce water pollution is the waste water treatment. This is done to lessen the harmful solids and other compounds that were dissolved in the water. The possible compounds are materials that consume oxygen, dissolved inorganic compounds like that of the detergents, and harmful bacteria. According to Norris (1994) water pollution could be lessen if the citizens will do some regulatory influence over the agricultural, industrial, and municipal sector that contributes most of the pollution in water in terms of chemical runoffs and other contaminants. The citizens could either demand for a clean water act that the government will take a lead of. Problems with water pollution can never be answered by the government alone as stated by Krantz and Kifferstein’s (2007). Hence if that kind of negative phenomenon will continue to flourish, little by little life on earth will be put to risk. The people have the greatest responsibility about how it occurred and responsibility also on how to clean it up. Familiarization on what and how water pollution takes place is a big help to stop it from overrunning the whole water system of the planet. Hence pollution is like a network and it covers not only the water or the land but also the air or atmosphere, it is our choice to react and make some motions on how we can stop it or if not, at least lessen its unfavorable consequence. In cases like greenhouse effects, it is not only the emission of the cars and or the wastes coming from industrial companies that the government or the environmentalists should have concern of. But instead to a broader level like considering the population size, its activities and its contribution to carbon dioxide emission. References Edugreen. teri. res. in, 2007. Health Impacts Of Water Pollution. Retrieved on May 14, 2007 at http://edugreen. teri. res. in/explore/water/health. htm GEMI, 2007. Water Trends. Retrieved on May 12, 2007 at http://www. gemi.org/water/watertrends. htm Hayes, W. 2007. Non Point Source Water Pollution. Retrieved on May 12, 2007 at http://ohioline. osu. edu/aex-fact/0441. html Krantz, D. and Kifferstein. B, 2007. Water Pollution And Society. Retrieved on May 14, 2007 at http://www. umich. edu/~gs265/society/waterpollution. htm Mbgnet, 2007. Water Pollution. Retrieved on May 12, 2007 at http://mbgnet. net/fresh/pollute. htm Norris, J. 1994. How To Lessen Water Pollution. Retrieved on May 12, 2007 at http://scholar. lib. vt. edu/VA-news/VA-Pilot/issues/1994/vp941108/11050020. htm

photovoltaic cells :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Photovoltaic cells are solid state devices that convert light directly into electricity. Photovoltaic literally means â€Å"light electricity.† These devices can be commonly found providing power for small scale devices such as calculators, watches, and small radios. However, they are not limited to small scale systems. They are also used to power satellites, communications equipment, houses and many other things, especially in remote locations where a power grid is not readily available. In isolated locations the only power attainable comes from the sun. The sun shines approximately 1000 watts of energy per square meter of the planets surface, which if harnessed could power any city.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The commercial development of the photovoltaic cell took more then a hundred years to begin. A french physicist Edmond Becquerel first described the photovoltaic effect in 1839. At the age of 19 Becquerel found that certain materials when exposed to light produced small measurable currents. Henrich Hertz also studied the effect in solids in the 1870's and he managed to produce photoelectric cells with an efficiency of about 1%. In the 1940's the new Czochralski process made generating highly pure crystalline silicon possible and furthermore made commercializing photovoltaic cells an option. Development really started however, in 1954 when Bell Laboratories used the Czochralski process to produce a 4% efficient crystalline silicon cell, which was essentially for application in space. This was the beginning of photovoltaic cells.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Photovoltaic cells generally consist of five layers. Two of these layers are semiconductors and the remaining three are merely for protection and to aid absorption of light. The top layer is generally a glass cover for protection against the elements since photovoltaic cells are used outside. Underneath this is an anti-reflective coating. Since most photovoltaic cells are made of silicon and silicon is reflective this prevents the photons from merely being bounced off the cell and allows the highest amount of absorption possible. These two layers are secured with a transparent adhesive. Transparent, obviously, so the photons can pass through it. Surrounding the entire cell is a metallic grid on top and a metal contact on bottom.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The two layers of semiconductor are the most important. Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity intermediate between the high conductivity of metals and the low conductivity of insulators. Conductivity is decided by how many free electrons are available to carry charge, and in turn how tightly electrons are bound to the parent atom.

Free Essays - A Personal Utopia in Brave New World :: Brave New World

A Personal Utopia:   An Analysis of a Key Passage in Brave New World   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The key passage of Aldous Huxley’s Brace New World takes place after John has been arrested and is a conversation with Mond.   When John and Mond speak of ideal societies, a major part of Brave New World, the aspect of human nature which makes us search continuously for our personal Utopia, becomes apparent.   In Mond’s study, the sacrifices each character makes in order to find a Utopia are interconnected.   The search for a personal Utopia reveals Huxley’s view on human nature of sacrificing everything to live with self-fulfillment.   Ã‚  The connection of the sacrifices each character makes is shown in the study, helping the reader understand that it is human nature to sacrifice something to live a more fulfilling life.   One sees that all, except Helmholtz and John, are willing to give up an important part of them so they can feel fulfilled.   Mond is willing to sacrifice the one thing dearest to him- science.   He says he gave it up in hope of Controllership.   He got what he paid for by continuing his interest in science, â€Å"By choosing to serve happiness.     Other people’s-not mine.† [235], or by serving stability instead of collapsing the fragile social structure.   At the beginning, Bernard was willing to give up his position in the new world so he could further his studies in finding a society more suited to his needs; but, in the end, he did not want to give up his rank and failed in finding an ideal society.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It becomes apparent that anyone who will not give up a major part of themself will fail in their quest for a greater society.   John is not willing to give up anything, be it antiques to happiness.   In the end, however, he ended up making the ultimate sacrifice- his life.   By ending his life, he escaped into what his society’s religion believed to be a Utopia; it is better known as heaven.   Meanwhile, Helmholtz is able to somewhat adapt to any surronding and makes the sacrifices as needed, that is the reason he was not biased to any other cultures.   There are still faults in his beliefs, thanks to hynopaedia. Helmholtz cannot understand Othello, he is not accustomed   to the social inability the book thrives on.   He was still by far the most able, and willing, to understand John’s society.

Business, Government & Society – Notes on Relevant Journals

Berend (2000) From Plan to Market, From Regime Change to Sustained Growth in Central and Eastern Europe * After the state socalism collapsed in Central and Eastern Europe in the early 1990s, the Washington consensus of 1989 (a broadly accepted set of criteria for a reform program) was adopted as a blueprint for the process of transformation. * Central elements: * Macro-economic stabilization (for countries with significant inflation and indebtedness) * New institutions Legislation * Price and trade liberalisation * Radical privatization * Most of the â€Å"transformatologyâ€Å" literature is based on the assumption that the elimination of deformed non-market economies, a restoration of market, and private ownership, paired with a laissez-faire free market system would automatically solve all major economic/social problems of the transforming countries. The economic crisis within the Central and Eastern Europe area started much earlier – in the mid-late 1970s when growth slo wed significantly and the terms of trade for the state socialist countries began to deteriorate (1973 first oil shock 20% decline, for some even 26-32%) Schumpeter’s theory of â€Å"structural crisis†: advancements in technology lead to decline of the old leading sectors and export branches based on old technology, generating wide-ranging slow-down and decline and causing an economic crisis even in rich, advanced countries.However, although rising new technology led to the emergence of new industries, new leading export sectors and an impressive new boom in the US and other advanced countries, the Central and Eastern Europe countries experienced a â€Å"peripheral structural crisis† – they suffered all the negative consequences of a the â€Å"structural crisis† but due to not having sufficient resources for R&D, know-how and financial sources, they were not able to take advantage of the technological development.After 1989, when the countries of th e region lost the protection from Comecon’s isolation and regional self-sufficiency, they were forced to enter the world market and compete with the advanced countries (already adjusted to new technology) and also on their own opened domestic market. Consequence: the peripheral structural which had prolonged since 1973 continued and worsened during the 1990s. Also contributing to the economic crisis: serious macro-economic policy errors e. excessive devaluation of the currency; too abrupt opening to trade with the West; and the failure in government management of the state sector * Foreign trade deficits increased dramatically and nearly all countries in the region dropped into an indebtedness trap – debt service consumed about 40-75% of the countries’ hard income and quite a few started to lose control over inflation * Economic policy during the transition: Change was too fast countries of transformation should not have attempted to jump directly from a central ly planned to a laissez-fair economy and from an entirely state-owned to a 100% privatized economy * State regulations and government policy were needed self-regulating mechanisms were not yet developed, market imperfections and non-market friendly behaviour were present * Suggestion (Kolodko) : A regulated market, instead of a self-regulation market, a mixed economy with a restructured and efficient state-owned sector for at least a period of time, and a â€Å"fine mixture between market and stae† would have been a more natural transition from plan to market * However, this approach was not adopted and led to a collapse of many old companies (lost a bulk of their value and had to be sold for a fraction of their previous value) mass unemployment, sharp decline in living standards (especially for vulnerable layers of society) * Outcome: Industry recovered only in two countries – Poland and Hungary * Some experienced a new crisis – Bulgaria and Romania * Russia an d Ukraine as well as several other successor states of the Soviet nion had experienced constant decline throughout the entire decade * Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia and Croatia – market economies are functioning, economic decline and rapid inflation are over, the annual economic growth is impressive * Performance differences: * Often explained by the lack of determination to pursue radical reforms author agrees * However, besides pursuing systemic change, the countries in transformation also have to adjust to the â€Å"structural risis†, by restructuring the economy according to the requirements of modern technology to reach a sustained and higher than average growth technological and structural transformation of the economy are central elements of the transition * Window of opportunity slowly opened after 1989 when direct foreign investment became the key factor in technological modernization and restructuring in the area but only played an important r ole in the three frontrunners of transformation – Estonia, Latvia and Slovenia * In addition, not all investments contributed to restructuring, some of them served only to enlarge the investors’ markets. However, key investments were made in the most backward infrastructural sphere, especially telecommunication that serves as the basis for any kind of technological progress to date. * Investments had positive effects on Eastern Europe where they generated growth of domestic business which led to economic growth (especially in Poland).Big transnational businesses were also obliged to reinvest some of its profits and to use domestic products and sub-contractors initiated small local business activities. * Russia, the successor states of the Soviet Union, and most of the Balkan countries exhibited minimal progress in restructuring. FDI was minimal in this area and mostly went into the extracting branches of oil, gas and raw materials; transnationals are present but do not develop processing industries and export branches. Consequently, this area was unable to adjust to the late 20th century technological revolution and declined into a continuous peripheral structural crisis. In those Central European countries, where impressive FDI assisted technological-structural adjustment, transformation is paving the way to sustained growth and catching up with the West. These countries became memers of NATO and are candidates for EU membership. Murrell (1993): What is Shock Therapy? What Did it Do in Poland and Russia? Poland: * Shock therapy failed in Poland * The reform program implemented in January 1990 comprised a number of related measures * Fiscal policy was tightened considerably budget surplus in Q1 1990 * Real value of the money supply was halved * Tight limits were placed on credit * Trade liberalisation removed all restrictions * Anti-inflation wage tax was set at strict levels Government made a commitment to privatisation on a massive scale * Soli darity and the Catholic Church were two of the strongest social institutions in Eastern Europe helping to maintain the shock therapy model * Once it was realised that the shock therapy was not going to produce as many benefits as expected, it came under severe attack gradually, many of the elements of the initial program were withdrawn or weakened monetary policy was loosened * Further movement away from the shock program occurred throughout 1991 in the face of massive and open opposition to the government’s policy * Fiscal and monetary policy were considerably loosened budget deficit began to rise to the levels of 1989 * Reversal of trade policy tariff rates increased and selective protection was endorsed * Although policy was modified during the two years following the big bang, the commitment of the large part of society to change was never in doubt. * Change was inexorable (kohklematu), given the collapse of the communist regime that had blocked reforms that had been dema nded for so long. * Nevertheless, Polish economy started to show first signs of success after policy was rescued from the shock therapists. Russia: Stages of the reform chronology in Russia are similar to those in Poland, but without a successful outcome * Less preparatory reform during the communist period in Russia * Core group of reformers were radical and ambitious, and more removed from its own society than were the Polish reformers * Radical reforms had hardly advanced beyond their explicitly destructive first phases before they were rejected by society * By 1991 economic reform in the Soviet Union had hardly progressed beyond the stage of decentralisation within the old system and it was still very equivocal * Price controls and state orders contributed to about 75% of economic activity * Small private sector did not thrive on its own, it was in a symbiotic relationship with the state sector * Law on contract had not been implemented by the end of USSR * Russia’s econo mic and political leaders still did not fully comprehend the difficult conceptual and institutional issues related to establishing macroeconomic control and they had little experience Russia could not match Poland’s years of contact with the West, the experience and knowledge of its policymakers gained in the worldwide academic community, and the years of learning in interactions with the world financial community. * In 1990 and 1991, the Russian government had been gradually gained power (and this was accelerated by the failed coup). * In late October 1991, Russian President Boris Yeltsin announced his intention to launch a radical attack on the country’s economic problems. He had been given freedom in administrative and policy choices for one year and he decided to assign the policymaking duties to a group of theorists, who had a strong preference for rapid change and who had vague idea about how to bring this change about * Murrell argues that shock therapy was the guiding force of policy as Russia began real economic reform in January 1992. * The reform (1992) was certainly more radical than the Polish big-bang, including: * Freeing of most prices * Removal of the old supply system * The complete liberalisation of imports * A thoroughgoing change in the tax system * Rapid closing of the budget deficit * Stringent tightening of monetary policy * A privatisation program with very ambitious goals Preparation for early convertibility of the ruble together with and immediate relaxation of rules on foreign exchange trading * Renegotiation of the existing trading relationships with the other ex-republics * There was greater determination in Russia to undermine the existing institutions of government; the incoming government viewed its mission as an attack on the old Soviet system. * In several areas, the degree of shock, the amount of policy implementation, and even actual policy were unclear * Uncertainty about the nature of policy was present even among those at the apex of government * As early as February 1992, criticisms about the economic policy started to arise * As 1992 proceeded and the economic crisis became more threatening, some old mechanisms of control began to return * Broad powers to control prices and to use central directives on production * To avoid large scale bankruptcy, the government began to make credit available to nterprises in significant amounts * Due to a threat that better enterprises were being brought down with the bad ones, directors of enterprises formed an alliance along with independent labour unions to put pressure on the government, which was forced into compromise with these interest groups * Direct consequence of the policies introduced in January 1992 was that the political forces representing the dominant economic interests of the old Soviet system were much stronger than they had been before those policies were introduced * The short burst of shock therapy in Russia had considerable s uccess if destruction is counted as a goal. But the destruction of the old was hardly matched by the creation of market-oriented institutions of economic control. Blanchard (1994): Transition in Poland * First two years: * Large decreases in GDP * Even larger decreases in industrial production * Output stabilised in mid-1992 * Employment declined initially more slowly than GDP, but has kept declining despite the turn in output * Hardening of budget constraints * Subsidies to state firms were decreased Tax arrears, interenterprise arrears and bank loans were limited and decreasing * Sources of output decline during the first 2 years: * Stabilisation * Price liberalisation * Collapse of trade between Central and Eastern Europe countries * State firms are controlled by workers with uncertain stakes and horizons, and have limited access to finance; state has remained de jure owner of state firms but is not able to exercise its control rights control has reverted to the workers * Led to slow adjustment of employment to decreasing output, appropriation of profits to workers in the form of wages and low restructuring and investment * Slow privatisationFidrmuc (2003): Economic reform, democracy and growth during post-communist transition Key point: There are merits to simultaneous democratisation and liberalisation – democracy reinforces economic liberalisation, which in turn leads to better growth performance. Democracy is clearly not a necessary condition for high growth (as the examples of Chile and China illustrate), but as the experience of the post-communist transition countries shows, democracy results in policies and institutions that facilitate economic reforms and create an environment that is favourable for growth. However, democratisation alone is not the key to growth; it is through its positive impact on economic liberalisation that it improves growth performance. By 1993, barely 3 years into transition, three frontrunners – the Czech Repub lic, Hungary and Slovenia – attained a level of political freedom and civil liberties comparable to the UK, France or Germany. * Most post-communist countries succeeded in sustaining at least a moderate level of democracy, despite very turbulent economic and political developments, military conflicts or coup attempts. * The high speed of democratisation reflected not only the desire of these countries’ citizens to live in democracy, but also the encouragement or outright pressure from Western governments, international organisations and especially the EU which made democracy and explicit precondition for accession negotiations. Democracy has a positive effect on progress in implementing market-oriented reforms. * Economic liberalisation, in turn, has a positive effect on growth * Therefore, democracy indirectly improves growth performance. * Economic performance during transition and initial conditions affected the progress in democratisation – countries that we re more developed at the outset of transition and those that grew faster during transition in turn implemented greater degree of democracy. Growth performance during transition: * All post-communist countries experienced dramatic contraction of economic activity at the outset of the reforms, but the subsequent transition paths diverged considerably. Some countries reached the bottom of transformational recession after 2-4 years and then recovered * Some, most notably Poland grew at impressive rates subsequently * Others (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic and Romania) experienced a second dip later on * In contrast, most Soviet Union countries experienced deep and protracted depression with little subsequent recovery –> for Moldova and Ukraine, transition resulted in a decade of continuous decline * By 2000 only 4 countries have exceeded the 1989 level of output * Berg et al. (1999) found that the initial output fall is attributable primarily to initial conditions and macroeconomic instability, whereas the effect of liberalisation on growth was overwhelmingly positive. When considering separately the effects of liberalisation on state and private sectors, they conclude that liberalisation contributed to the contraction in the state sector, but this was more than compensated by the expansion in the private sector. The further a country lies from Brussels, the more reluctant it was to implement radical economic reforms – therefore, being father away from Western Europe is associated with lower growth, although the relationship is often not significant. * Engagement in military conflicts, not surprisingly, lowers growth. * On the other hand, once the war is over, the affected countries tend to grow more rapidly as they make up for the loss of output. * Government expenditure does not have a significant impact on growth Democracy and growth: * The post-communist countries implemented, at least initially, economic and political reforms simultaneously. In so me cases, political reforms even preceded the economic ones.Hellmann (1998): Winners Take All: The Politics of Partial Reform in Postcommunist Transition Key point: A conventional approach suggests that in the short-term, economic reforms are believed to generate high transitional costs before long-term gains are realised. Therefore, politicians in democratic systems are reluctant to undertake radical reforms whose benefits will not be realised before the next elections. For an economic reform to be successful, governments need to focus on restraining the net winners of the reform as they are the one’s responsible for setting the highest obstacles for the advancement of the reforms. The partial reform model: Explains why some countries have maintained partial reform over time, even though the short-term costs are higher and the overall gains are lower than those associated with more comprehensive reforms * Explains why post-communist countries in which the net winners of the reform process appear to have significant political power over economic policy-making nevertheless have remained mired in a partially reformed economy * Provides a possible explanation for the strong link between democracy and economic reform among the postcommunist transitions that stresses the advantages of including the very groups that suffer from the transitional costs of reform Conclusion: The costs of transition have been substantial in all transition economies – to varying degrees, each country has faced some combination of high inflation, high unemployment, declining real incomes, decreasing state services, and increasing uncertainty. * However, the losers of the reforms have not constituted the main political obstacle to the progress of reform. * In fact, it is these countries in which governments have been most vulnerable to the losers’ threat of an electoral backlash against reform that have adopted and sustained the most comprehensive reform programs. * In contrast, governments insulated from electoral pressures have made, at best, only partial progress in reforming their economies. * Moreover, economic reforms, once adopted, have rarely been reversed, even when the reform governments that initiated them have been ousted.In addition, there have been cases in which electoral backlashes were followed by intensification of reform in some areas * Partial reforms were predicted to generate rent-seeking opportunities arising from price differentials between the liberalised sectors of the economy and those still coordinated by nonmarket mechanisms * Rapid foreign trade liberalisation without complete price liberalisation managers were able to sell their highly subsidised natural resource inputs (oil/gas) to foreign buyers at world market prices * Privatisation coupled with the creation of an effective corporate government structure reduces asset stripping by enterprise insiders. Actors who enjoyed extraordinary gains from the distortions of a partially reformed economy have fought to preserve those gains by maintaining the imbalances of partial reforms over time – the winners from an earlier stage of reform have incentives to block further advances in reform that would correct the very distortions on which their initial gains were based. In effect, they seek to prolong the period of partial reforms to preserve their initial flow of rents, though at a considerable social cost. * Therefore, the challenge posed by the winners is based on a set of assumptions about the costs and benefits of reform that differs from the assumptions of the conventional J-curve pattern upon which most existing models of the political economy of reform are based. J-curve assumes that economic reforms generate concentrated costs in the short term and dispersed benefits over the long term, whereas Hellman has demonstrated that in the postcommunist transitions, economic reforms have tended to produce highly concentrated gains to particula r groups in the short term, while dispersing the transitional costs of reform throughout the economy. * The partial reform model stresses the need to restrain the winners by increasing competition with other groups or by restricting their ability to veto reform measures unilaterally. * In this view, expanding political participation to include the losers in the policy-making process could place limits on the concentrated political power of the winners and prevent them from sustaining a partial reform equilibrium. * One of the fundamental tenets of the politics of economic reform has always been to create a constituency of winners with a stake in sustaining and advancing the reform process. This has been a common strategy both for making the reforms irreversible and for building up the necessary political support for further reforms. * Yet a comparison of the post-communist transitions suggests that the winners can do far more damage to the progress of economic reform than the losers . * Therefore, the success of economic reform depends both on creating winners and constraining them. * Paradoxically, the most effective means of constraining the winners in the post-communist transitions has been to guarantee the political inclusion of the very constituency that most existing political economy models seek to exclude: the short-term losers of reform. Progress in the implementation of market reforms could reduce the private gains to the initial winners over time, while increasing efficiency gains for the economy as a whole from winners’ perspective, J-curve is reversed * Countries that adopt more comprehensive reforms at the start have a narrower gap between the income curves of winners and losers. More on PARTIAL REFORM and other information: Roland (2002): The Political Economy of Transition Normative political economy – focuses on the decision-making problem of reformers Reformers face 2 types of political constraints: * Ex ante political constraint s – feasibility constraints * Ex post political constraints – related to backlash and policy reversal Relaxing political constraints – 4 options: 1.Building reform packages that give compensating transfers to losers from reforms * Easiest way – ‘Buy their acceptance’ * In the real world and transition economies it is hard to do 2. Making reforms partial to reduce opposition * Partial reform, usually in the framework of a gradualist strategy, has some clear disadvantages. It yields lower efficiency gains than a complete reform. * However, partial reform also has several potential advantages over full reform – it is less costly in terms of compensation payments to losers. * If partial reform is less costly to reverse than full reform, political acceptability can be easier than for full reform because it provides an option of early reversal. If a partial reform is implemented, a continuation toward full reform seems unattractive to a majo rity then it is always possible to come back to the status quo (Russia – turned back too early?! ) * Gradualism thus lowers the cost of experimenting with reform and thus makes a move away from the status quo more easily acceptable to a majority. * Partial reform can also build constituencies for further reform through the use of â€Å"divide and rule† tactics (showing that rejection of a current reform plan can lead to the adoption of a plan that would hurt them even more, they may prefer to accept the first one) and the optimal choice of sequencing of reforms (e. g privatisation of those enterprises with â€Å"good† outcome first) 3.Creating institutions that make a credible commitment to compensating transfers * Can offer benefits * However entails economic costs * E. g extending voting franchise- ensuring poorer segments of population vote 4. Waiting for deterioration of the status quo to make reform more attractive * Sometimes only option is to wait * Howev er, decision-making paralysis may occur if political decision making is characterised by different parties trying to push the burden onto the other parties Understanding the difference in transition paths between central European countries like Poland and Russia and the former Soviet Union on the other hand: * Law and property rights: One argument – the extent of state capture and rent seeking was much more important in former Soviet Union countries than in central Europe and this difference goes a long way in explaining differences in output performance (EBRD, 2000; Hellman and Shankerman, 2000) * Geopolitical factors * Quite important, although they have been underestimated since the beginning of the transition – in geopolitical terms, the transition represents the shift of central Europe and the Baltic states toward western Europe several nations are given the opportunity to have more interaction with western Europe or even join the European Union * Entry to the EU implies adopting the political and economic system of the west. The potential reward of belonging to the club of western nations makes it more worthwhile to undergo the cost of transition.Moreover, the geopolitical factor increases the perceived cost of reversing transition policies, since such reversals would raise the risk of being left out of the western club, an outcome than many in central and eastern Europe would view as disastrious. Geopolitical impact of transition for Russia: * Transition represents the loss of the Soviet empire and also of territories (Ukraine or the Baltic States) – wound to Russian nationalist pride * Trauma of the loss of superpower status could be compensated for by economic gains from transition to a certain extent. Unfortunately, such gains have not materialised so far for the majority of Russians. Entry of Russia into the EU is neither expected nor especially desired. * Thus, resistance to transition proved much harder in the former Soviet Un ion than in central and eastern Europe. Sequencing: The sequence of reforms in transition economies are roughly in line with political economy theory, which suggests that reforms expected to be more popular should be adopted first and the less popular reforms tend to be delayed. For example, in both Central and Eastern Europe, democratic reforms preceded economic reforms because support for democracy was much stronger than support for economic reforms. * Apart from political reforms, certain other institutional changes can be decided at an early stage of reforms. For example, establishment of institutions for competition policy should be among the first reforms to be implemented in transition economies.This reduces the danger of existing monopolies going into private hands, which may have enough power to prevent the government from introducing competition policy or any other measures that are opposed to their interests. * Another important early step in the sequence of transition re forms is encouraging the development of a small private sector prior to more comprehensive reforms (in Hungary, small private sector was already producing 10% of industrial output by 1990) * As the Big Bang Price Liberalization in Vietnam showed, the prior existence of a viable private sector buffered the shocks of economic liberalization and macroeconomic stabilization and facilitated a supply response.In Vietnam, after the implementation of a radical price liberalisation, output initially fell, but an impressive growth in agriculture still led to positive growth in GDP. * In transition economies, the best firms tend to be privatized first as the privatization of more profitable firms creates political support and goodwill to for further privatization and other reforms. * Another set of sequencing issues arises with regard to mass privatization. Mass privatization in countries like Russia created a sudden and strong concentration of economic power among insider managers. This is es pecially dangerous because a sudden shift of economic power to insider managers may make it easier for them to threaten or use bribery against politicians and regulators to take advantage of subsidies or favorable legislation.The insider uses the threat of reducing economic activity and destroying jobs which leads to inequality of wealth which in turn might increase political instability. Trade-off between the speed of reforms and the size of budgetary transfers: * The theory of political economy suggests that faster reforms involve higher compensation costs like unemployment benefits and pensions due to a higher level of restructuring. In addition, there are claims that a faster rate of restructuring in transition economies is associated with a worsening fiscal state. * However, the role of the social safety net in helping overcome political constraints is quite clear.In the case of central European countries like Poland and the Czech Republic, the social safety net has helped to m itigate the negative ffects of transition on income inequality, especially for the most vulnerable proportions of the population. Role of political institutions: * When it comes to the role of political institutions and the progress of reforms, there are contradicting views. * Empirical analysis by Hellman and EBRD has found that stronger executive branch of government tends to be associated with less progress in reform, whereas there tends to be a positive correlation between the broadness of coalition and the progress of reforms. * However, empirical findings by Rubini and Sachs, among others, have shown that weak executive branch and broad coalition goverments are obstacles to reforms. Faster progress in reforms due to broader coalition may be explained by the fact that if reforms are accepted by broader coalitions, perhaps there is less chance they can be reversed. * However, broad coalitions tend to paralyze decision making due to the holdup power of some groups and to differin g views within the coalition. * Another possible interpretation is that the population is eager to get reforms implemented, whereas the politicians and those holding office are opposed to it. In that case, closer checks on the executive branch and frequent elections are a way to force the politicians to move, whereas politicians with more discretion would choose to block reforms. According to Roland, the most likely explanation for the positive correlation between progress of reforms and broadness of coalitions and weakness of the executive branch is that it is likely that the countries where it was the easiest to push for democratic reforms, are also the countries where resistance to economic reforms was relatively smaller. Whereas in countries with less initial support for reforms, it is quite likely that both democratic reform and economic reform are less advanced. Therefore, the differences in initial conditions of reform are what determine the intensity of political constraints , and thus the initial choice of political institutions, and hence the initial choice of policies. Popov (2000) – Shock Therapy vs Gradualism:Primary issue regarding transition performance – strength of institutions Secondary – speed of reforms * By now most economists would probably agree that because liberalisation was carried out without strong market institutions it led to the extraordinary output collapse in CIS states * The worse initial conditions for transformation, the greater the probability of the deep transformational recession, and hence the more likely delays in liberalisation * Gradualists objected to the elimination of old regulations and institutions before the new ones are created, warning that the institutional vacuum may have a devastating impact on output Transformational recession Supply-side phenomenon – reallocation of resources (restructuring) due to market imperfections is associated with the temporary loss of output Argument: Di fferences in economic performance in post-communist countries during transition appear to be associated predominantly not with chosen reform paths, but with the magnitude of initial distortions in industrial structure and external trade patterns, and with the initial level of economic development. The higher the distortions (militarisation, over-industrialisation, â€Å"under-openness† of the economy and the share of perverted trade flows), the worse is the performance as measured by the GDP change. And the higher was GDP per capita before transition, the greater were distortions embodied in fixed capital stock, the more difficult it was to overcome these distortions to achieve growth. The impact of speed of liberalisation appears to be limited, if any. Reasons (distortions): * High defence expenditure and the need for conversion * Overcoming the effects of the Cold War Defence expenditure was abnormally high – declines in defence output were not offset by increases in non-defence output * Reallocation of resources from industry to services * External trade distortions – the degree of openness of socialist economies (the share of external trade in GDP) * In most countries, including the majority of the former Soviet republics, trade was relatively underdeveloped * A bit better in Azerbaijan, Hungary and Vietnam * Shift to world market prices in interrepublican trade led to reduced trade – prices used were completely different (resource commodities underpriced, finished goods overpriced) Policy factors: institutions, rule of law and democracy The decline of the institutional capabilities contributed a great deal to Russia’s and CIS poor economic performance * Regardless of the criticism against â€Å"big governments† and too high taxes in former socialist countries, the downsizing in the government that occurred in most CIS states during transition went too far – drastic reduction of government spending (50% and more in real terms in the course of just several years) cannot lead to anything else but institutional collapse * In addition, in most CIS states the reduction occurred in the way that instead of shutting some programs down completely and concentrating limited resources on others, governments kept all programs half-alive, half-financed and barely working Three major patterns of change in the share of government expenditure: 1) Under strong authoritarian regime – China Cuts in government expenditure occurred at the expense of defence, subsidies and budgetary financed investment, while expenditure for â€Å"ordinary government† remained largely unchanged 2) Under strong democratic regimes – Poland * Budgetary expenditure, including â€Å"ordinary government† expenditure declined only in the pre-transition period, but increased during transition itself – social safety nets? 3) Under weak democratic regimes – Russia * Reduction of the general le vel of government expenditure led not only to the decline in the financing of defence, investment and subsidies, but to the downsizing of â€Å"ordinary government† which undermined and in many nstances even led to the collapse of the institutional capabilities of the state * Russian pattern of institutional decay proved to be extremely detrimental for investment, and for general economic performance To sum up, Gorbachev reforms of 1985-91 failed not because they were gradual, but due to the weakening of the state institutional capacity leading to the inability of the government to control the flow of events. Similarly, Yeltsin reforms in Russia, as well as economic reforms in most other FSU states, were so costly not because of the shock therapy, but due to the collapse of the institutions needed to enforce law and order and carry out manageable transition. Therefore, there is enough evidence that differing performance during transition, after factoring in initial conditions and external environment, depends mostly on the strength of institutions and not so much on the progress in liberalisation per se. Democratisation without strong rule of law usually leads to the collapse of output.After allowing for differing initial conditions, it turns out that the fall of output in transition economies was associated mostly with poor business environment, resulting from institutional collapse. Liberalisation alone, when it is not complemented with strong institutions, cannot ensure good performance. Ericson (1991): The Classical Soviet-Type Economy: Nature of the System and Implications for Reform Characteristics of the Soviet-type economic system: * A hierarchical structure of authority * Rigid, highly centralised planning of production and distribution * A commitment to maximal resource utilisation * Formal rationing * Exhaustive price control * The lack of any liquidity or flexible response capability * The lack of legal alternatives to assigned economic rela tionships * Absolute and arbitrary control by superiors Incentives that are geared to meeting the plans and desires of evaluating superiors Any economic reform must struggle against these characteristics and their natural consequences. One important consequence is that while the administrative superstructure has been subject to rather frequent â€Å"reform†, the physical structure of production and interaction has changed only very slowly. Strengths and weaknesses of the traditional Soviet-style system: Strenghts: * Very good at mobilising scarce resources and concentrating on a few clear, well-defined objectives (that can be expressed in measurable, quantitative and communicable terms and that yield large observable outcomes) * Building of major heavy industrial capacities * Collectivisation of agriculture * Post-war reconstruction of industry Development of an unprecedented military-industrial complex * Maintenance of the world’s last true empire Weaknesses: * Centra l authorities lack the information and physical capability to monitor all important costs * Decisions made in ignorance of opportunity costs lead to a vast range of negative externalities: * Damage to the capability of users to produce (especially with needed quality) * Unusable output forced on others in the system * Destruction of the resource base due to improper exploitation * Collateral damage to agriculture etc * Incentives used lead agents to: * Avoid any change or risks * Shun innovation * Ignore information important to others * Work to rules regardless of the impact on othersThus, while the traditional Soviet economic system has been effective in achieving a few centrally definable and achievable objectives, it is also inherently wasteful and inefficient in the pursuit of those objectives. Implications for reform: 2 monumental obstacles: * Vast resource commitment – however, lack of resources currently available in Soviet-style economies is probably not the most ser ious obstacle, for it might be dealt with through aid from abroad * Primary obstacle: characteristics of the Soviet-style system are interconnected and mutually supporting, altering one or a few is merely disruptive of the stable functioning of the system and its effectiveness.Thus, a meaningful reform must eliminate all characteristics more or less simultaneously. THEREFORE Partial reforms will not suffice The analysis implies that radical reformers are correct to seek the total replacement of the traditional system. Radical marketization and privatisation undercut of destroy each of the nine defining characteristics of the traditional system. Fischer & Gelb (1991): The Process of Socialist Economic Transformation Enterprise reform: * Enterprise reform, which requires the imposition of bottom-line discipline, definition and change of ownership, and reform of management, is the heart of the transformation process. Two phases (opinions differ which should come first) * Restructuring * PrivatisationSlow privatisers argue that firms should be sold off gradually after restructuring. They emphasise the danger of severe economic dislocation if too much change is attempted quickly. Fast privatisers argue that the benefits of a rapid and irreversible shift to private production outweigh the costs of reduced state revenue. They believe that comprehensive and rapid ownership reform is necessary to increase efficiency. * Broad distribution of shares, or vouchers with which shares can be bought, across the population The Role of the State: * Redefining the previously all-encompassing role of the state is one of the greatest challenges for reform.Institutions and professions taken for granted in market economies have to be re-created and reformed to support markets: * Secure legal environment to protect property rights and regulate commercial relations * Accounting and audit systems are needed to organise and monitor information * Investments in human capital to complement the system reforms in areas such as: accounting, credit and market analysis and bank inspection. * Management skills need to be upgraded and modernised (especially in finance and marketing) * In some areas, such as financial markets, reform may require a greater state role than before. * Reforming governments need urgently to: * Introduce broad-based taxes and to develop the capacity for tax administration, rather than continue to depend on profit remittances from state enterprises. * Institute a social safety net, especially for those affected by the new phenomenon of open unemployment * Liberalisation of labour and capital markets is also important.Labour market reform measures to make it easier to hire/fire labour, relaxation of wage regulation, introduction of unemployment insurance, establishment of institutions (inc. employment agencies) to encourage labour mobility. Capital market reform development of financial markets and private sector institutions (inc. banks). However, freeing input markets should not be an early priority. * Enterprise reform is the heart of the transformation process. 2 phases: restructuring and privatisation. Slow privatizers vs fast privatizers. Reforming governments will have to introduce broad-based taxes and develop the capacity for tax administration, rather than continue to depend on profit remittances from state enterprises. The reforming goverments will also have to develop a social safety net. Sequencing of reforms: Reforms need to include macroeconomic stabilisation, price reform, trade reform, small-scale privatisation, new regulations for private investment, the creation of emergency unemployment insurance and the start of work on new tax, legal and regulatory institutions. * For countries with severe internal/external imbalances, priority no. 1 has to be macroeconomic stabilisation (e. g sharp cuts in firm-specific subsidies, tight credit limits, trade liberalisation at a heavily depreciated exchange rate, fixing th e nominal exchange rate (in countries with high inflation)). Stabilisation can be assured only by following consistent macroeconomic policies over periods of years. Shleifer (1997) : Government in Transition Key point: Russian government is less effective in serving the market economy – as well as its people – than the Polish government. But why? Arguments to the effect hat Russia is historically and culturally incapable of good government (such as low trust and anti-market culture) lack support. More convincing argument: Russia has not had as radical a change in its government, in terms of both structure and personnel, as Poland or the Czech Republic. Comparison of Poland and Russia: * Both were industrial economies at the time reforms began * Both economies faced substantial disruption from the collapse of COMECON and other trade following the demise of the Soviet Union * Both economies were in poor condition when the reforms began, suffering from inflation, goods sh ortages and declining production. * Both experienced a near-collapse of the state prior to transition. In Poland – total demise of the communist party and its military regime * In Russia – the Gorbachev government faced a similar crisis, which led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the creation of independent Russia * After communism collapsed, both countries moved to fragmented, rapidly changing party systems and â€Å"semi-presidential† regimes, in which a conflict between president and legislature was present from the start. * Both were led in their transition by charismatic, populist presidents committed first and foremost to the destruction of communism. However, despite these similarities as of 1990, the two countries appeared in 1996 to have very different results of their reforms. I argue that an essential part of transition to capitalism is the transition of government.Despite similar economic reforms, government in Russia continues to retain su bstantial political control over economic life, and moreover uses this control to pursue predatory policies toward business. The political transition in Russia has not gone nearly as far as it has in Poland, and this slowness of political transition disturbs economic growth. Government in transition: * Even when the communist power collapsed, some remnants of a large government often remained, ready to continue political control. The principal goal of the political transition was to replace these remnants with institutions supportive of capitalism. This entailed two steps: * Depoliticisation – government control replaced with control by market orces * Price liberalisation – eliminates price controls that were used by planners to either stimulate or discourage production of particular goods, or to create shortages that allow planners to maintain their power over resource allocation. * Stabilisation – imposes a harder budget constraint on the government, and thus prevents politicians from using subsidies to encourage firms (and regions) to pursue political ends * Privatisation – removes direct control over firms from the government * New functions taken on by government: provision of laws and regulations that support a market economy. * The state had to be weakened overall, but strengthened in a few areas. * However, even with the three radical measures taken, the government retains much regulatory power which it can use to either support market economy or hurt it. Shock therapy does not guarantee depoliticization (as politicians can still exercise control in other ways) or a transformation of government institution which includes: * creation of laws and legal institutions that protect private property, enforce contracts between private parties, but also limit the ability of officials to prey on private property * creation of regulatory institutions that deal with competition, securities markets, banking, trade and so on * Despite sho ck therapy, politicians in Russia, particularly at local level, retain enormous control over economic life, which they use to pursue political ends and to enrich themselver. * This makes them rather different from politicians in Poland * Russia is also behind in creating the institutions of a new market economy. ALSO Transition of government into one that supports markets from the one that preys on them has gone further in Poland than in Russia – regulators of small business exert more power over business in Moscow than in Warsaw and use this power to enrich themselves. In addition, the Russian government has not yet successfully taken on the basic market supporting functions, including police protection. * Russia is much more of a laggard in the transition of its government than it is in shock therapy. Human capital of politicians: Key point: Lack of turnover of human capital in Russian politics may well be a serious reason for the poor performance of its government * Many R ussian politicians are communist leftovers experiencing significant hardships understanding what is expected from them. Few of these leftover politicians have transformed themselves into capitalist politicians. In Poland, 75% of local leaders elected in Poland in 1990 had no record of government service and 45% of newly elected mayors were under the age of 40 – in Poland the people have largely changed and been replaced by a younger crowd, with some experience in both democratic politics and market economy, whereas in Russia, the local leaders are largely the very same people who were there before the reform began. In this respect Solidarity changed Poland – Russia would be a very different place politically if it had a similar revolution from below. Incentives of local politicians to support private business * Campaign support * If politicians need to collect campaign contributions to run their elections, they might favour new business as a source of potential campaig n donations * Local tax base * If politicians need to provide public goods to attract votes, and must collect taxes to pay for these goods, they would support the growth of new business to broaden the tax base * Personal share holdings Local politicians may support private business if they effectively become shareholders in it and profit personally when it does well Poland vs Russia: Elections: * Poland had held elections more consistently than Russia and officials at very local level – where small business would actually have a political say – are all elected. * Because of elections, Polish politicians appear to be much more supportive towards private business than Russian politicians. Tax base * In Poland, the principal source of funds for local governments are local taxes and fees, especially property taxes incentive to the local politicians to broaden the tax base to increase revenue through new business formation and employment * In Russia, over 2/3 of local gover nment evenues comes from their share in taxes collected by central government through negotiation governors have little incentive to broaden their tax bases and instead focus on negotiations with Moscow Personal financial incentives: * In Russia, many of the local officials see a rather short and insecure future for themselves in politics. If the private economy grows, they are likely to lose power because they will not be acceptable to the new business elites or will be replaced by younger politicians during new elections. Absence of political security may prevent the politicians from accessing the future profits of the firms, therefore many local government officials simply destroy local business through excessive corruption and regulation – they take what they can while they can. Initial conditions Poland had been pursuing economic reforms at least since the 1980s (much longer than Russia) Polish private sector was well established by 1990 when reforms began (by 1986 1/3 o f the Polish labour sector was employed in the private sector) * Poland had a much more substantial legal history and tradition to rely on – many of its commercial laws were adopted as soon as reforms began because they were based on Poland’s own pre World War II laws * National tradition made the implementation of at least some institutional reforms much easier. * Russia had been building capitalism for a much shorter time – Gorbachev’s reforms allowed some quasi-private firms in Russia, but few compared to Poland. Russia’s history of market institutions is sparse too – pre-revolutionary laws were an instrument of autocratic control, not protection against it; regulatory agencies have been created from scratch, employees often view their jobs as mandates for personal enrichment rather than efficient regulation. * However, author believes that importance of initial conditions can be overrated – many countries in Eastern Europe, such a s Slovakia and the Czech Republic, are growing rapidly even though they had as little private business before the reforms as Russia did. Some countries of FSU are also growing despite having a limited history of legal traditions and public institutions. With proper political incentives, initial conditions are often overcome. Suggestions: Acceleration of elections at the sub-regional or local level * Fiscal federalism – more generally the tax system – needs to be reformed as well. * Institutional reforms need to continue – legal reforms are most important among those, but creating functional bureaucracies, one at a time, is also crucial. * Russia made the mistake of beginning with economic reforms and delaying the political and institutional reforms (however, author believes that business pressures are likely to play a critical role in the political transition of Russia and of course they did not exist before economic reforms) Estrin (1991) – Privatisation in Central and Eastern Europe Key points: Appropriate mode of privatisation depends on the development of capital market institutions and the availability of foreign or domestic private capital * Transition must be rapid to be effective, so reforming governments have been faced with the tasks of selling assets whose value is far in excess of domestic resources. Privatisation: * Objective: to improve enterprise performance and national economic efficiency and to help public finances (Vickers and Yarrow, 1988) * Definition (Milanovic) – transfer from the public to the private sector of ownership in such a way that private individuals become the identifiable ultimate owners Seven central areas in which property rights and the mechanism of resource allocation must be altered in order to build a functioning market sytem: 1) Ownership and control 2) Means of allocation 3) Aims of the System 4) The Allocation of Labour 5) The Allocation of Capital 6) International Trade 7) Role of StateReformers in Central and Eastern Europe strongly believe that their recent history proves that when the state is owner, it will always interfere in the operation of firms in such a way as to hinder the beneficial impact of competition Hinds (1990) – absence of effective private property rights is at the heart of the failure of actual socialist systems, and must be immediately eradicated by widespread privatisation. Privatisation: * Important way of raising government revenues, but it will not affect the state’s long-term financial position if enterprise efficiency is not changed; may still be sensible from a revenue point of view is short-term conditions call for additional expenditures with limited availability of taxation or other income sources * Important element in building markets Significant role in the formation of labour market institutions and the process of wage bargaining * Privatisation prevents a reversion to the old systems How to Privatise and to W hom? One of the main problems – mass privatisation in countries where domestic savings are small and capital market institutions weak Arguments FOR selling state’s assets: * Considerable revenues * If monetary overhang threatens to destabilise the macroeconomy, privatisation could absorb some of the excess liquidity. * Owners established through a process of financial exchange will have the strongest demand effective corporate governance Arguments AGAINST selling state’s assets: * Unequal distribution of income and wealth Traditional modes of privatisation are very slow and most analysts agree that for transition to be effective the changes must be fast * Valuation problem – nothing upon which to base valuation (no relevant record of profitability), a significant proportion of companies are loss-making, thus it is likely that sales price will be negative * No domestic actors with the resources to buy Most of these problems are resolved by a free distribut ion of the state’s holdings: * No need to value the assets initially * No need to find domestic purchasers * Privatisation could be extremely rapid * Provided an operational scheme can be devised, privatisation can be constructed in a highly egalitarian way, preventing the early concentration of wealth in the hands of the nomenklatura or black marketeers who otherwise would be the people most likely to gain from privatisation Disadvantages of free distribution: * Losing the revenues from sales Possibility of weak governance if capital ownership is dispersed – central issue is whether population at large are the appropriate owners to dramatically improve company performance Potential buyers or recipients: * Public at large – external privatisation or privatisation from above * Transfer of ownership to shareholders * Foreigners – access to hard currency, superior management skills and technical know-how * Insiders – internal privatisation or privatis ation from below * Involves the sale of shares to workers and managers in the firm * Attractive: * Could be administered quickly and relatively easily, yet could still provide some revenue to the government * Participative organisations may be more productive * Negative: Yugoslav experience: employee control may conflict with effective corporate governance * No establishment of credible procedure for wage determination and for reducing inflationary pressures * Clearly not suitable for companies that require a significant degree of restructuring (probably the vast majority) * Unjust – workers and managers in profitable firms stand to gain considerably from the privatisation process, while those employed in loss-making firms would obtain nothing * Potential for bribery and corruption as workers and managers can use insider information to undervalue the assets or to transfer them illicitly into their own hands Roland (1994) – On the Speed and Sequencing of Privatisation a nd Restructuring Big bang approach – fast privatisation through mass privatisation plans with no definite sequencing, leaving the task of restructuring to the owners of the privatised firm Key point:Political constraints necessitate a gradual approach to restructuring and gradualism has implications for the speed and sequencing of privatisation. In particular, we ward on the danger of privatising too fast firms where restructuring should best be delayed for political reasons. Conclusion: A condition for successful gradual restructuring is a screening mechanism to separate good firms from bad ones. It is crucial to separate thee firms and their channels of finance, so that good firms would become independent of government through government and face hard budget constraints while bad firms would remain under government control with strengthened control. Arguments for the big bang view of mass privatisation: * Speed Price liberalisation in a state-owned enterprise economy will n ot give the correct incentives, thus it is necessary to achieve very quickly a critical mass of private ownership in order to get firms to respond to market signals. * If not done: * Danger of inertia – due to firms not taking new profit opportunities * Danger of continued soft budget constraints – loss-making firms expect to be bailed out * Importance of getting the State out of the economy * Committing the State to avoid continuous intervention in enterprise activity * Absence of clarified property rights * Danger of large scale decapitalisation by managers who have de facto control without assigned property rights Experience: * Poland Plan: combining fast privatisation through giveaways together with strong control rights given to mutual funds to avoid dispersed ownership of firms * Political constraints have played a major role in blocking Polish mass privatisation – in 1994, four years after the beginning of â€Å"big bang† in Poland, it is still not implemented * Russia * Speed of privatisation – obvious success (about 1/3 of workers were in privatised firms by end of 1993) * Problems with restructuring * Former managers are still in control (workers did not sell their shares to outsiders to assure outsider control; managers preventing them) Political constraints: There are 2 main sources of political constraints to privatisation: * Ex-ante political constraints – feasibility constraints * Proposals may be blocked – e. in Poland where coalition in power preferred distribution to workers whereas the Polish mass privatisation programme involved distribution to the population at large * In Russia, policy-makers took into account ex-ante political constraints by designing a giveaway plan favouring managers and workers (Boycko, Shleifer and Vishny (1993) justify that this was the only way to get privatisation adopted) * Sometimes coalitions push forms of privatisation that are economically not sensible but poli tically difficult to avoid * Ex-post political constraints – concern the danger of backlash and reversal of given politics * This may be the case when a programme advertised as very egalitarian induces a high concentration of wealth in the hands of a small number of people * However, political constraints related to redistribution of wealth and income may not be the most serious * More serious political constraints are related to serious income risks related to restructuring – general knowledge that there will be a massive shift from heavy industry to services, from big to small enterprises, but in most cases, nobody knows in advance which enterprises will survive and which will die Experience: * Big bang restructuring is not ex ante feasible * Gradual restructuring may be more acceptable ex ante because: * Gradualism allows for â€Å"divide and rule† tactics * Gradual resolution of uncertainty may enhance ex ante feasibility * Aggregate uncertainty related to u ncertainty: restructuring may be positive but it can go wrong, too advantage to moving gradually by starting to restructure only a subset of enterprises or sectors * Gradual eform packages tend to start earlier – Hungary and China * Optimal sequencing: * Better to start with reforms having the highest expected outcome for a majority and to delay the reforms that are expected to hurt the most Gradual restructuring and privatisation policies: * No political constraints – restructuring may be left to the new private owners * Political constraints – very fast and non-differentiated approach to privatisation danger of partial renationalisations (subsidising a great number of firms) and general delays in restructuring (due to soft budget constraints/no incentives) * Gradual privatisation policy allows for: Establishment of a screening mechanism separating good from bad firms * Best firms tend to get privatised first as they are more likely to find a buyer less large r edundancies and better performance * Privatisation may be slow, but it is possible to speed it up: * Managers incentives to restructure before privatisation especially when given shares * In Poland, although mass privatisation has been blocked, successful privatisation has continued at a fast speed especially in smaller and medium enterprises through a â€Å"liquidation programme† – management buyout * Emergence of a sound private financial system If good firms get privatised first, bad firms remain under state control private savings are allocated to good firms with high yieldings sound financial system may emerge * A credible pol